Research Original Investigation Meditation Programs for Psychological Stress and Well-being A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis Madhav Goyal, MD, MPH; Sonal Singh, MD, MPH; Erica M. S. Sibinga, MD, MHS; Neda F. Gould, PhD; Anastasia Rowland-Seymour, MD; Ritu Sharma, BSc; Zackary Berger, MD, PhD; Dana Sleicher, MS, MPH; David D. Maron, MHS; Hasan M. Shihab, MBChB, MPH; Padmini D. Ranasinghe, MD, MPH; Shauna Linn, BA; Shonali Saha, MD; Eric B. Bass, MD, MPH; Jennifer A. Haythornthwaite, PhD IMPORTANCE Many people meditate to reduce psychological stress and stress-related health Invited Commentary page 368 problems. To counsel people appropriately, clinicians need to know what the evidence says about the health benefits of meditation. Author Audio Interview at jamainternalmedicine.com OBJECTIVE To determine the efficacy of meditation programs in improving stress-related Supplemental content at jamainternalmedicine.com outcomes (anxiety, depression, stress/distress, positive mood, mental health–related quality of life, attention, substance use, eating habits, sleep, pain, and weight) in diverse adult clinical populations. CME Quiz at jamanetworkcme.com EVIDENCE REVIEW We identified randomized clinical trials with active controls for placebo effects through November 2012 from MEDLINE, PsycINFO, EMBASE, PsycArticles, Scopus, CINAHL, AMED, the Cochrane Library, and hand searches. Two independent reviewers screened citations and extracted data. We graded the strength of evidence using 4 domains (risk of bias, precision, directness, and consistency) and determined the magnitude and direction of effect by calculating the relative difference between groups in change from baseline. When possible, we conducted meta-analyses using standardized mean differences to obtain aggregate estimates of effect size with 95% confidence intervals. FINDINGS After reviewing 18 753 citations, we included 47 trials with 3515 participants. Mindfulness meditation programs had moderate evidence of improved anxiety (effect size, 0.38 [95% CI, 0.12-0.64] at 8 weeks and 0.22 [0.02-0.43] at 3-6 months), depression (0.30 [0.00-0.59] at 8 weeks and 0.23 [0.05-0.42] at 3-6 months), and pain (0.33 [0.03- 0.62]) and low evidence of improved stress/distress and mental health–related quality of life. We found low evidence of no effect or insufficient evidence of any effect of meditation programs on positive mood, attention, substance use, eating habits, sleep, and weight. We found no evidence that meditation programs were better than any active treatment (ie, drugs, exercise, and other behavioral therapies). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Clinicians should be aware that meditation programs can result in small to moderate reductions of multiple negative dimensions of psychological stress. Thus, clinicians should be prepared to talk with their patients about the role that a meditation program could have in addressing psychological stress. Stronger study designs are needed to determine the effects of meditation programs in improving the positive dimensions of mental health and stress-related behavior. JAMA Intern Med. 2014;174(3):357-368. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018 Published online January 6, 2014. Author Affiliations: Department of Medicine, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland (Goyal, Singh, Rowland-Seymour, Berger, Ranasinghe, Bass); Department of Pediatrics, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland (Sibinga, Saha); Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Services, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland (Gould, Sleicher, Haythornthwaite); Department of Health Policy and Management, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland (Sharma, Maron, Shihab, Linn, Bass). Corresponding Author: Madhav Goyal, MD, MPH, Department of Medicine, The Johns Hopkins University, 2024 E Monument St, Ste 1-500W, Baltimore, MD 21287 (madhav@jhmi.edu). 357 Copyright 2014 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ by a Florida International University Medical Library User on 05/06/2021 Research Original Investigation Meditation for Psychological Stress and Well-being M any people use meditation to treat stress and stressrelated conditions and to promote general health.1,2 To counsel patients appropriately, clinicians need to know more about meditation programs and how they can affect health outcomes. Meditation training programs vary in several ways, including the type of mental activity promoted, the amount of training recommended, the use and qualifications of an instructor, and the degree of emphasis on religion or spirituality. Some meditative techniques are integrated into a broader alternative approach that includes dietary and/or movement therapies (eg, ayurveda or yoga). Meditative techniques are categorized as emphasizing mindfulness, concentration, and automatic self-transcendence. Popular techniques, such as transcendental meditation, emphasize the use of a mantra in such a way that it transcends one to an effortless state where focused attention is absent.3-5 Other popular techniques, such as mindfulnessbased stress reduction, emphasize training in presentfocused awareness or mindfulness. Uncertainty remains about what these distinctions mean and the extent to which these distinctions actually influence psychosocial stress outcomes.5,6 Reviews to date report a small to moderate effect of mindfulness and mantra meditation techniques in reducing emotional symptoms (eg, anxiety, depression, and stress) and improving physical symptoms (eg, pain).7-26 These reviews have largely included uncontrolled and controlled studies, and many of the controlled studies did not adequately control for placebo effects (eg, waiting list– or usual care–controlled studies). Observational studies have a high risk of bias owing to problems such as self-selection of interventions (people who believe in the benefits of meditation or who have prior experience with meditation are more likely to enroll in a meditation program and report that they benefited from one) and use of outcome measures that can be easily biased by participants’ beliefs in the benefits of meditation. Clinicians need to know whether meditation training has beneficial effects beyond self-selection biases and the nonspecific effects of time, attention, and expectations for improvement.27,28 An informative analogy is the use of placebos in pharmaceutical trials. A placebo is typically designed to match nonspecific aspects of the “active” intervention and thereby elicit the same expectations of benefit on the part of the provider and patient in the absence of the active ingredient. Office visits and patient-provider interactions, all of which influence expectations for outcome, are particularly important to control when the evaluation of outcome relies on patient reporting. In the situation when double-blinding has not been feasible, the challenge to execute studies that are not biased by these nonspecific factors is more pressing.28 To develop evidencebased guidance on the use of meditation programs, we need to examine the specific effects of meditation in randomized clinical trials (RCTs) in which the nonspecific aspects of the intervention are controlled. The objective of this systematic review is to evaluate the effects of meditation programs on negative affect (eg, anxiety, stress), positive affect (eg, well-being), the mental component of health-related quality of life, attention, healthrelated behaviors affected by stress (eg, substance use, sleep, 358 eating habits), pain, and weight among persons with a clinical condition. We include only RCTs that used 1 or more control groups in which the amount of time and attention provided by the control intervention was comparable to that of the meditation program. Methods Study Selection We searched the following databases for primary studies: MEDLINE, PsycINFO, EMBASE, PsycArticles, Scopus, CINAHL, AMED, and the Cochrane Library through June 2013. We developed a MEDLINE search strategy using PubMed medical subject heading terms and the text words of key articles that we identified a priori. We used a similar strategy in the other electronic sources. We reviewed the reference lists of included articles, relevant review articles, and related systematic reviews to identify articles missed in the database searches. We did not impose any limits based on language or date of publication. The protocol for this systematic review is publicly available.29 Two trained investigators independently screened titles and abstracts, excluding those that both investigators agreed met at least 1 of the exclusion criteria (Table 1). For those studies included after the first review, a second dual independent review of the full-text article occurred, and differences regarding article inclusion were resolved through consensus. We included RCTs in which the control group was matched in time and attention to the intervention group. We also required that studies include participants with a clinical condition. We defined a clinical condition broadly to include mental health/psychiatric conditions (eg, anxiety or stress) and physical conditions (eg, lower back pain, heart disease, or advanced age). In addition, because stress is of particular interest in meditation studies, we also included trials that studied stressed populations, although they may not have had a defined medical or psychiatric diagnosis. Data Abstraction and Data Management We used systemic review software (DistillerSR, 2010; Evidence Partners) to manage the screening process. For each meditation program, we extracted information on measures of intervention fidelity, including dose, training, and receipt of intervention. We recorded the duration and maximal hours of structured training in meditation, the amount of home practice recommended, description of instructor qualifications, and description of participant adherence, if any. Because numerous scales measured negative or positive affect, we chose scales that were common to the other trials and the most clinically relevant to make comparisons more meaningful. To display outcome data, we calculated the relative difference in change scores (ie, the change from baseline in the treatment group minus the change from baseline in the control group, divided by the baseline score in the treatment group). We used the relative difference in change scores to estimate the direction and approximate magnitude of effect for all outcomes. We were unable to calculate a relative differ- JAMA Internal Medicine March 2014 Volume 174, Number 3 Copyright 2014 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ by a Florida International University Medical Library User on 05/06/2021 jamainternalmedicine.com Meditation for Psychological Stress and Well-being Original Investigation Research Table 1. Study Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria Exclusion Criteriaa Inclusion Criteria Population and Adult populations (≥18 y); clinical (medical or psychiatric) condition of interest diagnosis, defined as any condition (eg, high blood pressure, anxiety) including a stressor Studies of children (type and nature of meditation received may be significantly different from that of adults); studies of otherwise healthy individuals Interventions Structured meditation programs (any systematic or protocol meditation programs that follow predetermined curricula) consisting of, at a minimum, ≥4 h of training with instructions to practice outside the training session, including mindfulness-based programs (ie, MBSR, MBCT, vipassana, Zen, and other mindfulness meditation), mantra-based programs (ie, TM, other mantra meditation), and other meditation programs Meditation programs in which the meditation is not the foundation and most of the intervention, including DBT; ACT; any of the movement-based meditations, such as yoga (eg, Iyengar, Hatha, shavasana), tai chi, and qi gong (chi kung); aromatherapy; biofeedback; neurofeedback; hypnosis; autogenic training; psychotherapy; laughter therapy; therapeutic touch; eye movement desensitization reprocessing; relaxation therapy; spiritual therapy; breathing exercise; pranayama exercise; any intervention that is given remotely or only by video or audio to an individual without the involvement of a meditation teacher physically present Comparisons of interest Active control is defined as a program that is matched in time and attention to the intervention group for the purpose of matching expectations of benefit (examples include attention control, educational control, or another therapy, such as progressive muscle relaxation, that the study compares with the intervention; nonspecific active control only matches time and attention and is not a known therapy); specific active control compares the intervention with another known therapy, such as progressive muscle relaxation Studies that only evaluate a waiting list or usual care control or do not include a comparison group Study design RCTs with an active control Nonrandomized designs, such as observational studies Timing and setting Longitudinal studies that occur in general and clinical settings None Abbreviations: ACT, acceptance and commitment therapy; DBT, dialectical behavioral therapy; MBCT, mindfulness-based cognitive therapy; MBSR, mindfulness-based stress reduction; RCTs, randomized clinical trials; TM, transcendental meditation. a We excluded articles with no original data (reviews, editorials, and comments), studies published in abstract form only, and dissertations. ence in change score for 6 outcomes owing to incompletely reported data for statistically insignificant findings. We considered a 5% relative difference in change score to be potentially clinically significant because these studies examined shortterm interventions and relatively low doses of meditation. For the purpose of generating an aggregate quantitative estimate of the effect of an intervention and the associated 95% confidence interval, we performed random-effects metaanalyses using standardized mean differences (effect size [ES]; Cohen d). We also used these analyses to assess the precision of individual studies, which we factored into the overall strength of evidence. For each outcome, ES estimates are displayed according to the type of control group and the duration of follow-up. Trials did not give enough information to conduct a meta-analysis on 16 outcomes. We display the relative difference in change scores along with the ES estimates from the meta-analysis so that readers can see the full extent of the available data (Figure 1 and Supplement [eFigures 1 to 34]). We classified the type of control group as a nonspecific active or specific active control (Table 1). The nonspecific active comparison conditions (eg, education or attention control) control for the nonspecific effects of time, attention, and expectation. Comparisons against these controls allow for assessments of the specific effectiveness of the meditation program beyond the nonspecific effects of time, attention, and expectation. This comparison is similar to a comparison against a placebo pill in a drug trial. Specific active controls are therapies (eg, exercise or progressive muscle relaxation) known or expected to change clinical outcomes. Comparisons against these controls allow for assessments of comparative effectiveness similar to those of drug trials that compare one drug against another known drug. Because these study designs are expected to yield different conclusions (efficacy vs comparative effectiveness), we separated them in our analyses. jamainternalmedicine.com Strength of the Body of Evidence We assessed the quality of the trials independently and in duplicate based on the recommendations in the Methods Guide for Conducting Comparative Effectiveness Reviews.30 We supplemented these tools with additional assessment questions based on the Cochrane Collaboration’s risk-of-bias tool.31,32 Two reviewers graded the strength of evidence for each outcome using the grading scheme recommended by the Methods Guide for Conducting Comparative Effectiveness Reviews.33 This grading was followed by a discussion to review and achieve consensus on the assigned grades. In assigning evidence grades, we considered the following 4 domains: risk of bias, directness, consistency, and precision. We classified evidence into the following 4 basic categories: (1) high grade (indicating high confidence that the evidence reflects the true effect and that further research is very unlikely to change our confidence in the estimate of the effect), (2) moderate grade (indicating moderate confidence that the evidence reflects the true effect and that further research may change our confidence in the estimate of the effect and may change the estimate), (3) low grade (indicating low confidence that the evidence reflects the true effect and that further research is likely to change our confidence in the estimate of the effect and is likely to change the estimate), and (4) insufficient grade (indicating that evidence is unavailable or inadequate to draw a conclusion). Results We screened 18 753 unique citations (Figure 2) and 1651 full-text articles. Forty seven trials met our inclusion criteria.34-80 Most trials were short-term but ranged from 3 weeks to 5.4 years in duration (Table 2). Not all trials reported the amount JAMA Internal Medicine March 2014 Volume 174, Number 3 Copyright 2014 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ by a Florida International University Medical Library User on 05/06/2021 359 Research Original Investigation Meditation for Psychological Stress and Well-being Figure 1. Strength of Evidence on the Trial Outcomes A Comparisons of Meditation Programs With Nonspecific Active Controls (Efficacy) Clinical Population Outcome Meditation Program Anxiety Mindfulness Various (n = 647) 8 (3); 7 (7) ↑(0% to +44%) Moderate for improvement Mantra Various (n = 237) 3 (2); 3 (3) Ø (–3% to +6%) Low for no effect Mindfulness Various (n = 806) 10 (4); 9 (8) ↑(–5% to +52%) Moderate for improvement Mantra Various (n = 440) 5 (1); 5 (3) ↑↓(–19% to +46%) Insufficient Mindfulness Various (n = 735)a 9 (4); 8 (7) ↑(+1% to +21%) Low for improvement Mantra Select (n = 239) 4 (2); 4 (2) Ø (–6% to +1%) Low for no effect Mindfulness Various (n = 1140)b 14 (5); 12 (11) ↑(–1% to +44%) Low for improvement Mantra Various (n = 438)c 5 (2); 5 (0) ↑↓(–3% to +46%) Insufficient Mindfulness Various (n = 293) 4 (0); 4 (4) ↑(+1% to +55%) Insufficient TM (mantra) CHF (n = 23) 1 (0); 1 (0) Ø (+2%) Insufficient Quality of Life Mindfulness Various (n = 346) 4 (2); 4 (3) ↑(+5% to +28%) Low for improvement Attention Mindfulness Caregivers (n = 21) 1 (0); 1 (0) ↑(+15% to +81%) Insufficient Sleep Mindfulness Various (n = 578) 6 (2); 4 (4) ↑↓(–3% to +24%) Insufficient Substance Use TM CAD (n = 201) 1 (0); 0 (0) Ø Insufficient Pain Mindfulness Select (n = 341) 4 (2); 4 (4) ↑(+5% to +31%) Moderate for improvement TM (mantra) CHF (n = 23) 1 (0); 1 (0) Ø (–2%) Low for no effect TM (mantra) Select (n = 297) 3 (0); 2 (0) Ø (–1% to +2%) Low for no effect Depression Stress/Distress Negative Affect Positive Affect Weight Direction No. of Trials, Total (PO); PA (MA) (Magnitude) of Effect Favors Mediation Strength of Evidence –1 Favors Control 0 1 d Statistic (95% CI) B Comparisons of Meditation Programs With Specific Active Controls (Comparative Effectiveness) Outcome Meditation Program Clinical Population No. of Trials, Total (PO); PA (MA) Direction (Magnitude) of Effect Anxiety Mindfulness Various (n = 691) 11 (6); 11 (10) ↑↓(–39% to +8%) Insufficient CSM (mantra) Anxiety (n = 42) 1 (1); 1 (0) ↓(–6%) Insufficient Mindfulness Various (n = 986) 13 (6); 13 (11) ↑↓(–32% to +23%) Insufficient CSM (mantra) Anxiety (n = 42) 1 (1); 1 (0) ↓(–28%) Insufficient Stress/Distress Mindfulness Various (n = 523) 7 (5); 7 (6) ↑↓(–24% to +18%) Insufficient Positive Affect Mindfulness Various (n = 297) 4 (2); 4 (4) ↑↓(–45% to +10%) Insufficient Quality of Life Mindfulness Various (n = 472) 6 (1); 6 (5) ↑↓(–23% to +9%) Insufficient Sleep Mindfulness Various (n = 311) 3 (1); 3 (2) ↑↓(–2% to +15%) Insufficient Eating Mindfulness Select (n = 158) 2 (1); 2 (0) ↓(–6% to –15%) Insufficient Smoking/Alcohol Mindfulness Substance abuse (n = 95) 2 (2); 1 (0) ↑(Ø to +21%) Insufficient Alcohol only Mantra Alcoholic (n = 145) 2 (2); 2 (0) Ø (–5% to –36%) Low for no effect Pain Mindfulness Select (n = 410) 4 (2); 4 (4) Ø (–1% to –32%) Low for no effect Weight Mindfulness Select (n = 151) 2 (2); 2 (0) Ø (–2% to +1%) Low for no effect Depression Favors Mediation Strength of Evidence –1 Favors Control 0 1 d Statistic (95% CI) Summary across measurement domains of comparisons of meditation programs with nonspecific active controls (efficacy analysis) (A) and specific active controls (comparative effectiveness analysis) (B). CAD indicates coronary artery disease; CHF, congestive heart failure; CSM, clinically standardized meditation (a mantra meditation program); MA, meta-analysis; PA, primary analysis; PO, number of trials in which this was a primary outcome for the trial; and TM, transcendental meditation (a mantra meditation program). Direction is based on the relative difference in change analysis. ↑ Indicates the meditation group improved relative to the control group (with a relative difference generally ⱖ5% across trials); ↓, the meditation group worsened relative to the control group (with a relative difference generally ±5% across trials); Ø, a null effect (with a relative difference generally 3.0 mg/L 186 Chiesa et al,39 2012 MBCT NSAC Fair 16 UC 8 wk/NA Anxiety (↑/NA), depression (+/NA), positive affect (+/NA) Depression 18 Hoge et al,78 2013 MBSR NSAC Fair 20 18.7 8 wk/NA Anxiety (+/NA), sleep (+/NA) Anxiety 89 Nakamura et al,79 2013 MM NSAC Fair 6 UC 3 wk/3 mo Depression (Ø/↑), stress/distress (↑/↑), positive affect (Ø/Ø), sleep (↑/↑) Cancer and insomnia 38 Wong et al,74 2011 MBSR Pain AC Good 27 Y-NS 8 wk/6 mo Anxiety (Ø/Ø), depression (Ø/Ø), mental QOL (Ø/Ø), pain (Ø/Ø) Chronic pain 99 Gross et al,45 2011 MBSR Drug Fair 26 36 8 wk/5 mo Anxiety (Ø/↑), depression (↓/↓), mental QOL (Ø/NA), sleep (↑/Ø) Insomnia 27 Koszycki et al,71 2007 MBSR CBGT Poor 27.5 28 8 wk/NA Anxiety (↓/NA), depression (Ø/NA) Anxiety 53 Barrett et al,34 2012 MBSR Exercise Fair 20 42 8 wk/5 mo Anxiety (Ø/Ø), stress/distress (Ø/Ø), positive affect (Ø/Ø), mental QOL (Ø/Ø), sleep (Ø/Ø) Cold/URI in past year 98 17.5 (continued) 362 JAMA Internal Medicine March 2014 Volume 174, Number 3 Copyright 2014 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ by a Florida International University Medical Library User on 05/06/2021 jamainternalmedicine.com Meditation for Psychological Stress and Well-being Original Investigation Research Table 2. Study Descriptions (continued) No. of Hours Meditation Program Type of Active Control Study Quality Program Training Homework Jazaieri et al,48 2012 MBSR Exercise Poor 25 28.3 Moritz et al,54 2006 MBSR Spirituality Good 12a Plews-Ogan et al,63 2005 MBSR Massage Poor 20 Hebert et al,46 2001 MBSR Nutrition education Fair 45a Philippot et al,61 2012 MBCT Relaxation Fair 13.5 Segal et al,66 2010 MBCT Drug Good 23a Kuyken et al,49 2008 MBCT Drug Good 24a Piet et al,62 2010 MBCT CBGT Fair 16 Delgado et al,40 MM 2010 PMR Fair 10 Wolever et al,73 MM 2012 Viniyoga Fair 14 Miller et al,53 2012 MM Smart Choices Poor 25 Brewer et al,37 2011 MM Lung Association FFS Poor 12 Brewer et al,36 2009 MM CBT Poor 9 Arch et al,75 2013 MM CBT Fair Omidi et al,80 2013 MBCT CBT Ferraioli and Harris,77 2013 MM Paul-Labrador et al,59 2006 Source Program Duration/Study Duration Outcomes (End of Treatment/End of Study) Population No. of Patients 8 wk/5 mo Anxiety (↑/Ø), depression (↑/↑), stress/distress (↑ /NA), positive affect (↑/NA) Social anxiety disorder 56 Y-NS 8 wk/3 mo Anxiety (−/NA), depression (↓/NA), stress/distress (−/↓), positive affect (− /NA), mental QOL (−/↓), pain (↓/NA) Mood disturbance (POMS) 110 Y-NS 8 wk/3 mo Mental QOL (↓/↑), pain (↓/↓) Chronic pain 23 15 wk/12 mo Eating habits (Ø/Ø), weight (Ø/Ø) Breast cancer 106 Y-NS 6 wk/3 mo Anxiety (↑/↑), depression (↑/Ø) Tinnitus 25 Y-NS 8 wk/20 mo Depression (NA/↑) Depression 84 37.5 8 wk/15 mo Depression (↓/NA), mental QOL (+/+) Depression 123 28 8 wk/NA Anxiety (↓/NA), depression (↓/NA), stress/distress (↓/NA) Social phobia 26 5 wk/NA Anxiety (Ø/NA), depression (↑/NA), stress/distress (Ø /NA), positive affect (Ø/NA) Worriers 32 12 wk/NA Depression (↑/NA), stress/distress (Ø /NA), sleep (Ø/NA), pain (↓/NA) Stressed employees 186 Y-NS 12 wk/6 mo Eating (↓/↓), weight (Ø/Ø) Diabetes mellitus 52 Y-NS 4 wk/4 mo Smoking (↑/+) Smokers 71 UC 9 wk/NA Alcohol abuse (Ø/NA) Alcoholism 118 18 29.2 10 wk/6 mo Anxiety (Ø/↑), depression (↑/Ø) Anxiety 105 Poor 16 56 8 wk/NA Anxiety (↓/NA), depression (↓/NA) Depression 60 SBPT Poor 16 UC 8 wk/5 mo Stress/distress (+/+) Stressed parents 15 TM NSAC Good 39 16 wk/NA Anxiety (Ø/NA), depression (↓/NA), stress/distress (↓/NA) CAD 103 Jayadevappa et al,47 2007 TM NSAC Good 22.5a 90 12 wk/6 mo Depression (↓/NA), stress/distress (Ø/Ø), positive affect (Ø/Ø), pain (Ø/↑) CHF 23 Schneider et al,65 2012 TM NSAC Good 78a 1310 12 wk/5.4 y Depression (NA/↑), weight (NA/NS) CAD 201 Smith,69 1976 TM NSAC Poor UC 87.5 4 wk/6 mo Anxiety (NA/Ø) Anxiety 41 Elder et al,41 2006 TM NSAC Fair UC 90 UC Weight (Ø/NA) Diabetes mellitus 54 Castillo-Richmond et al,38 2000 TM NSAC Poor UC 120.6 12 wk/NA Weight (Ø/NA) AA with hypertension 60 Chhatre et al,76 2013 TM NSAC Fair 24 112 12 wk/6 mo Depression (NA/↑), stress/distress (NA/↑) HIV 20 UC Y-NS UC Y-NS (continued) jamainternalmedicine.com JAMA Internal Medicine March 2014 Volume 174, Number 3 Copyright 2014 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ by a Florida International University Medical Library User on 05/06/2021 363 Research Original Investigation Meditation for Psychological Stress and Well-being Table 2. Study Descriptions (continued) No. of Hours Meditation Program Type of Active Control Study Quality Bormann et al,35 2006 Mantra NSAC Fair 7.5 Taub et al,70 1994 TM Biofeedback Fair 19 Lehrer et al,51 1983 CSM PMR Fair 7.5 Murphy et al,57 1986 CSM Running Poor 8 Source Program Training Homework Y-NS UC Y-NS 37.5 Abbreviations: AA, African American; AC, active control; CAD, coronary artery disease; CBGT, cognitive behavioral group therapy; CBT, cognitive behavioral therapy; CHF, congestive heart failure; COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; CRP, C-reactive protein; CSM, clinically standardized meditation; FFS, Freedom From Smoking program; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; IBS, irritable bowel syndrome; MBCT, mindfulness-based cognitive therapy; MBSR, mindfulness-based stress reduction; mental QOL, mental component of health-related quality of life; MM, mindfulness meditation; NA, not available; NS, not significant; NSAC, nonspecific active control; PMR, progressive muscle excluded from the meta-analyses, our findings from the primary analyses are less likely than the meta-analyses to be affected by publication bias. Discussion Our review indicates that meditation programs can reduce the negative dimensions of psychological stress. Mindfulness meditation programs, in particular, show small improvements in anxiety, depression, and pain with moderate evidence and small improvements in stress/distress and the mental health component of health-related quality of life with low evidence when compared with nonspecific active controls. Mantra meditation programs did not improve any of the outcomes examined, but the strength of this evidence varied from low to insufficient. Although meditation programs generally seek to improve the positive dimensions of health, the evidence from a small number of studies did not show any effects on positive affect or well-being for any meditation program. We found no evidence of any harms of meditation programs, although few trials reported on harms. One strength of our review is the focus on RCTs with active controls, which should give clinicians greater confidence that the reported benefits are not the result of nonspecific effects (eg, attention and expectations) that are seen in trials using a waiting list or usualcare control condition. Anxiety, depression, and stress/distress are different components of negative affect. When we combined each component of negative affect, we saw a small and consistent signal that any domain of negative affect is improved in mindfulness programs when compared with a nonspecific active control. The ESs were small but significant for some of these individual outcomes and were seen across a broad range of clinical conditions (Table 2). During the course of 2 to 6 months, the mindfulness meditation program ES estimates ranged from 0.22 to 0.38 for anxiety symptoms and 364 Program Duration/Study Duration Outcomes (End of Treatment/End of Study) Population No. of Patients 10 wk/6 mo Anxiety (↑/Ø), depression (Ø/↓), stress/distress (Ø/Ø) HIV 93 4 wk/NA Alcohol (Ø/NA) Alcoholism 118 5 wk/6 mo Anxiety (Ø/NA), depression (↓/↓) Anxiety 42 8 wk/NA Alcohol (−/NA) Alcoholism 27 relaxation; POMS, Profile of Mood States; SBPT, skills-based parent training program; TM, transcendental meditation; UC, unclear; URI, upper respiratory tract infection; Y-NS, homework was prescribed but amount not specified; Ø, no effect (within ±5%); +improved and statistically significant; ↑favors meditation (>5% but nonsignificant); ↓favors control (>5% but nonsignificant); −, worsened and statistically significant. SI conversion factor: To convert CRP to nanomoles per liter, multiply by 9.524. a Indicates estimated. 0.23 to 0.30 for depressive symptoms. These small effects are comparable with what would be expected from the use of an antidepressant in a primary care population but without the associated toxicities. In a study using patient-level meta-analysis, Fournier et al81 found that for patients with mild to moderate depressive symptoms, antidepressants had an ES of 0.11 (95% CI, −0.18 to 0.41), whereas for those with severe depression, antidepressants had an ES of 0.17 (−0.08 to 0.43) compared with placebo. Among the 9 RCTs* evaluating the effect on pain, we found moderate evidence that mindfulness-based stress reduction reduces pain severity to a small degree when compared with a nonspecific active control, yielding an ES of 0.33 from the meta-analysis. This effect is variable across painful conditions and is based on the results of 4 trials, of which 2 were conducted in patients with musculoskeletal pain,55,64 1 trial in patients with irritable bowel syndrome, 43 and 1 trial in a population without pain.44 Visceral pain had a large and statistically significant relative 30% improvement in pain severity, whereas musculoskeletal pain showed 5% to 8% improvements that were considered nonsignificant. Overall, the evidence was insufficient to indicate that meditation programs alter health-related behaviors affected by stress, and low-grade evidence suggested that meditation programs do not influence weight. Although uncontrolled studies have usually found a benefit of meditation, very few controlled studies have found a similar benefit for the effects of meditation programs on health-related behaviors affected by stress.17-19 In the 20 RCTs examining comparative effectiveness,† mindfulness and mantra programs did not show significant effects when the comparator was a known treatment or therapy. A lack of statistically significant superiority compared with a specific active control (eg, exercise) only addresses the question of equivalency or noninferiority if the trial is suitably pow*References 43, 44, 47, 54, 55, 63, 64, 73, 74 †References 34, 36, 37, 40, 45, 46, 48, 49, 51, 53, 54, 57, 61-63, 66, 70, 71, 73-75, 77, 80 JAMA Internal Medicine March 2014 Volume 174, Number 3 Copyright 2014 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ by a Florida International University Medical Library User on 05/06/2021 jamainternalmedicine.com Meditation for Psychological Stress and Well-being Original Investigation Research ered to detect any difference. Sample sizes in the comparative effectiveness trials were small (mean size of 37 per group), and none appeared adequately powered to assess noninferiority or equivalence. A number of observations provide context to our conclusions. First, very few mantra meditation programs met our inclusion criteria. This lack significantly limited our ability to draw inferences about the effects of mantra meditation programs on psychological stress–related outcomes, which did not change when we evaluated transcendental meditation separately from other mantra training. Second, differences may exist between trials for which the outcomes are a primary vs a secondary focus, although we did not find any evidence of this. The samples included in these trials resembled a general primary care population, and there may not be room to measure an effect if symptom levels of the outcomes are low to start with (ie, a floor effect). This limitation may explain the null results for mantra meditation programs because 3 transcendental meditation trials47,59,65 enrolled patients with cardiac disease, whereas only 1 enrolled patients with anxiety.69 Third, the lack of effect on stress-related outcomes may relate to the way the research community conceptualizes meditation programs, the challenges in acquiring such skills or meditative states, and the limited duration of RCTs. Historically, meditation was not conceptualized as an expedient therapy for health problems.3,6,82 Meditation was a skill or state one learned and practiced over time to increase one’s awareness and through this awareness to gain insight and understanding into the various subtleties of one’s existence. Training the mind in awareness, in nonjudgmental states, or in the ability to become completely free of thoughts or other activity are daunting accomplishments. The interest in meditation that has grown during the past 30 years in Western cultures comes from Eastern traditions that emphasize lifelong growth. The translation of these traditions into research studies remains challenging. Long-term trials may be optimal to examine the effect of meditation on many health outcomes, such as those trials that have evaluated mortality.65 However, many of the studies included in this review were short term (eg, 2.5 h/wk for 8 weeks), and the participants likely did not achieve a level of expertise needed to improve outcomes that depend on mastery of mental and emotional processes. Finally, none of our conclusions yielded a high strengthof-evidence grade for a positive or null effect. Thus, further studies in primary care and disease-specific populations are indicated to address uncertainties caused by inconsistencies in the body of evidence, deficiencies in power, and risk of bias. Limitations Some of the trials we reviewed were implemented before modern standards for clinical trials were established. Thus, many did not report key design characteristics to enable an accu- ARTICLE INFORMATION Accepted for Publication: October 4, 2013. jamainternalmedicine.com rate assessment of the risk of bias. Most trials were not registered, did not standardize training using trainers who met specified criteria, did not specify primary and secondary outcomes a priori, did not power the trial based on the primary outcomes, did not use CONSORT recommendations for reporting results, or did not operationalize and measure the practice of meditation by study participants.83 We could not draw definitive conclusions about effect modifiers, such as dose and duration of training, because of the limited details provided in the publications of the trials. Despite our focus on RCTs using active controls, we were unable to detect a specific effect of meditation on most outcomes, with the majority of our evidence grades being insufficient or low. These evidence grades were mostly driven by 2 important evaluation criteria: the quality of the trial and inconsistencies in the body of evidence. Trials primarily had the following 4 biases: lack of blinding of outcome assessment, high attrition, lack of allocation concealment, and lack of intentionto-treat analysis. The reasons for inconsistencies in the body of evidence may have included the differences in the particular clinical conditions and the type of control groups the studies used. Another possibility is that the programs had no real effect on many of the outcomes that had inconsistent findings. Clinical Implications and Future Directions Despite the limitations of the literature, the evidence suggests that mindfulness meditation programs could help reduce anxiety, depression, and pain in some clinical populations. Thus, clinicians should be prepared to talk with their patients about the role that a meditation program could have in addressing psychological stress. Future research in meditation would benefit by addressing the remaining methodological and conceptual issues. All forms of meditation, including mindfulness and mantra, imply that more time spent meditating will yield larger effects. Most forms, but not all, present meditation as a skill that requires expert instruction and time dedicated to practice. Thus, more training with an expert and practice in daily life should lead to greater competency in the skill or practice, and greater competency or practice would presumably lead to better outcomes. However, when compared with other skills that require training, such as writing, the amount of training or the dose afforded in the trials was quite small, and generally the training was offered during a fairly short period. These 3 components—trainer expertise, amount of practice, and skill— require further investigation. We were unable to examine the extent to which trainer expertise influences clinical outcome because teacher qualifications were not reported in detail in most trials. Trials need to document the amount of training instructors provide and patients receive and the amount of home practice patients complete. These measures will allow future investigators to examine questions about dosing related to outcome. Published Online: January 6, 2014. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018. Author Contributions: Dr Goyal had full access to all the data and takes full responsibility for the completeness and integrity of the data. JAMA Internal Medicine March 2014 Volume 174, Number 3 Copyright 2014 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ by a Florida International University Medical Library User on 05/06/2021 365 Research Original Investigation Meditation for Psychological Stress and Well-being Study concept and design: Goyal, Singh, Sibinga, Rowland-Seymour, Sharma, Berger, Ranasinghe, Bass, Haythornthwaite. Acquisition of data: Goyal, Singh, Sibinga, Gould, Rowland-Seymour, Sharma, Berger, Maron, Shihab, Ranasinghe, Linn. Analysis and interpretation of data: Goyal, Sibinga, Gould, Rowland-Seymour, Berger, Sleicher, Shihab, Ranasinghe, Linn, Saha, Bass, Haythornthwaite. Drafting of the manuscript: Goyal, Singh, Sibinga, Gould, Rowland-Seymour, Sharma, Berger, Sleicher, Maron, Ranasinghe, Haythornthwaite. Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: Goyal, Sibinga, Rowland-Seymour, Berger, Shihab, Ranasinghe, Linn, Saha, Bass, Haythornthwaite. Statistical analysis: Goyal, Singh, Berger, Saha. Obtained funding: Goyal, Bass. Administrative, technical, and material support: Goyal, Gould, Sharma, Maron, Shihab, Linn, Bass. Study supervision: Goyal, Sharma, Bass. Conflict of Interest Disclosures: None reported. Funding/Support: This study was supported by grant HHSA 290 2007 10061 from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ). Role of the Sponsor: The funding source had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication. The funding source approved assertion of copyright by the authors, as noted in a letter from the AHRQ Contracting Officer. Disclaimer: The authors are responsible for the contents, including any clinical or treatment recommendations. No statement in this article should be construed as an official position of AHRQ or of the US Department of Health and Human Services. Additional Contributions: Shilpa H. Amin, MD, provided support for this review in her capacity as the Task Order Officer assigned by the AHRQ for the work done under this task order. We received thoughtful advice and input from our key informants and members of a technical expert panel, who were offered a small honorarium in appreciation of their time. Swaroop Vedula, MBBS, PhD, helped to conduct the meta-analysis and was compensated for his time. Manisha Reuben, BS, Deepa Pawar, MD, MPH, Oluwaseun Shogbesan, MBBS, MPH, and Yohalakshmi Chelladurai, MBBS, MPH, helped to review studies included in the review and were compensated for their time. REFERENCES 1. Barnes PM, Bloom B, Nahin RL. Complementary and alternative medicine use among adults and children: United States, 2007. Natl Health Stat Report. December 10, 2008;(12):1-23. 2. Goyal M, Haythornthwaite J, Levine D, et al. Intensive meditation for refractory pain and symptoms. J Altern Complement Med. 2010;16(6):627-631. 3. Rapgay L, Bystrisky A. Classical mindfulness: an introduction to its theory and practice for clinical application. Ann N Y Acad Sci. August 2009;1172:148-162. 4. Travis F, Shear J. Focused attention, open monitoring and automatic self-transcending: 366 categories to organize meditations from Vedic, Buddhist and Chinese traditions. 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JAMA Internal Medicine March 2014 Volume 174, Number 3 Copyright 2014 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ by a Florida International University Medical Library User on 05/06/2021 jamainternalmedicine.com Meditation for Psychological Stress and Well-being 36. Brewer JA, Sinha R, Chen JA, et al. Mindfulness training and stress reactivity in substance abuse: results from a randomized, controlled stage I pilot study. Subst Abus. 2009;30(4):306-317. 37. Brewer JA, Mallik S, Babuscio TA, et al. Mindfulness training for smoking cessation: results from a randomized controlled trial. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2011;119(1-2):72-80. 38. Castillo-Richmond A, Schneider RH, Alexander CN, et al. Effects of stress reduction on carotid atherosclerosis in hypertensive African Americans. Stroke. 2000;31(3):568-573. 39. Chiesa A, Mandelli L, Serretti A. Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy versus psycho-education for patients with major depression who did not achieve remission following antidepressant treatment: a preliminary analysis. J Altern Complement Med. 2012;18(8):756-760. 40. Delgado LC, Guerra P, Perakakis P, Vera MN, Reyes del Paso G, Vila J. Treating chronic worry: psychological and physiological effects of a training programme based on mindfulness. Behav Res Ther. 2010;48(9):873-882. 41. Elder C, Aickin M, Bauer V, Cairns J, Vuckovic N. Randomized trial of a whole-system ayurvedic protocol for type 2 diabetes. Altern Ther Health Med. 2006;12(5):24-30. 42. Garland EL, Gaylord SA, Boettiger CA, Howard MO. Mindfulness training modifies cognitive, affective, and physiological mechanisms implicated in alcohol dependence: results of a randomized controlled pilot trial. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2010;42(2):177-192. 43. Gaylord SA, Palsson OS, Garland EL, et al. Mindfulness training reduces the severity of irritable bowel syndrome in women: results of a randomized controlled trial. Am J Gastroenterol. 2011;106(9):1678-1688. 44. Gross CR, Kreitzer MJ, Thomas W, et al. Mindfulness-based stress reduction for solid organ transplant recipients: a randomized controlled trial. Altern Ther Health Med. 2010;16(5):30-38. 45. Gross CR, Kreitzer MJ, Reilly-Spong M, et al. Mindfulness-based stress reduction versus pharmacotherapy for chronic primary insomnia: a randomized controlled clinical trial. Explore (NY). 2011;7(2):76-87. 46. Hebert JR, Ebbeling CB, Olendzki BC, et al. Change in women’s diet and body mass following intensive intervention for early-stage breast cancer. J Am Diet Assoc. 2001;101(4):421-431. 47. Jayadevappa R, Johnson JC, Bloom BS, et al. Effectiveness of transcendental meditation on functional capacity and quality of life of African Americans with congestive heart failure: a randomized control study. Ethn Dis. 2007;17(1):72-77. 48. Jazaieri H, Goldin PR, Werner K, Ziv M, Gross JJ. A randomized trial of MBSR versus aerobic exercise for social anxiety disorder. J Clin Psychol. 2012;68(7):715-731. 49. Kuyken W, Byford S, Taylor RS, et al. Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy to prevent relapse in recurrent depression. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2008;76(6):966-978. 50. Lee SH, Ahn SC, Lee YJ, Choi TK, Yook KH, Suh SY. Effectiveness of a meditation-based stress management program as an adjunct to jamainternalmedicine.com Original Investigation Research pharmacotherapy in patients with anxiety disorder. J Psychosom Res. 2007;62(2):189-195. 51. Lehrer PM, Woolfolk RL, Rooney AJ, McCann B, Carrington P. Progressive relaxation and meditation: a study of psychophysiological and therapeutic differences between two techniques. Behav Res Ther. 1983;21(6):651-662. 52. Malarkey WB, Jarjoura D, Klatt M. Workplace based mindfulness practice and inflammation: a randomized trial. Brain Behav Immun. 2013;27(1):145-154. 53. Miller CK, Kristeller JL, Headings A, Nagaraja H, Miser WF. Comparative effectiveness of a mindful eating intervention to a diabetes self-management intervention among adults with type 2 diabetes: a pilot study. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2012;112(11):18351842. 54. Moritz S, Quan H, Rickhi B, et al. A home study-based spirituality education program decreases emotional distress and increases quality of life: a randomized, controlled trial. Altern Ther Health Med. 2006;12(6):26-35. 55. Morone NE, Rollman BL, Moore CG, Li Q, Weiner DK. A mind-body program for older adults with chronic low back pain: results of a pilot study. Pain Med. 2009;10(8):1395-1407. 56. Mularski RA, Munjas BA, Lorenz KA, et al. Randomized controlled trial of mindfulness-based therapy for dyspnea in chronic obstructive lung disease. J Altern Complement Med. 2009;15(10):1083-1090. 57. Murphy TJ, Pagano RR, Marlatt GA. Lifestyle modification with heavy alcohol drinkers: effects of aerobic exercise and meditation. Addict Behav. 1986;11(2):175-186. 58. Oken BS, Fonareva I, Haas M, et al. Pilot controlled trial of mindfulness meditation and education for dementia caregivers. J Altern Complement Med. 2010;16(10):1031-1038. 59. Paul-Labrador M, Polk D, Dwyer JH, et al. Effects of a randomized controlled trial of transcendental meditation on components of the metabolic syndrome in subjects with coronary heart disease. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166(11):12181224. 60. Pbert L, Madison JM, Druker S, et al. Effect of mindfulness training on asthma quality of life and lung function: a randomised controlled trial. Thorax. 2012;67(9):769-776. 61. Philippot P, Nef F, Clauw L, Romree M, Segal Z. A Randomized controlled trial of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for treating tinnitus. Clin Psychol Psychother. 2012;19(5):411-419. 65. Schneider RH, Grim CE, Rainforth MV, et al. Stress reduction in the secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease: randomized, controlled trial of transcendental meditation and health education in blacks. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes. 2012;5(6):750-758. 66. Segal ZV, Bieling P, Young T, et al. Antidepressant monotherapy vs sequential pharmacotherapy and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, or placebo, for relapse prophylaxis in recurrent depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2010;67(12):1256-1264. 67. SeyedAlinaghi S, Jam S, Foroughi M, et al. Randomized controlled trial of mindfulness-based stress reduction delivered to HIV+ patients in Iran: effects on CD4+ T lymphocyte count and medical and psychological symptoms. Psychosom Med. 2012;74(6):620-627. 68. Henderson VP, Clemow L, Massion AO, Hurley TG, Druker S, Hebert JR. The effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction on psychosocial outcomes and quality of life in early-stage breast cancer patients: a randomized trial. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2012;131(1):99-109. 69. Smith JC. Psychotherapeutic effects of transcendental meditation with controls for expectation of relief and daily sitting. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1976;44(4):630-637. 70. Taub E, Steiner SS, Weingarten E, Walton KG. Effectiveness of broad spectrum approaches to relapse prevention in severe alcoholism: a long-term, randomized, controlled trial of transcendental meditation, EMG biofeedback and electronic neurotherapy. Alcohol Treat Q. 1994;11(1-2):187-220. 71. Koszycki D, Benger M, Shlik J, Bradwejn J. Randomized trial of a meditation-based stress reduction program and cognitive behavior therapy in generalized social anxiety disorder. Behav Res Ther. 2007;45(10):2518-2526. 72. Whitebird RR, Kreitzer M, Crain AL, Lewis BA, Hanson LR, Enstad CJ. Mindfulness-based stress reduction for family caregivers: a randomized controlled trial. Gerontologist. 2013;53(4):676-686. 73. Wolever RQ, Bobinet KJ, McCabe K, et al. Effective and viable mind-body stress reduction in the workplace: a randomized controlled trial. J Occup Health Psychol. 2012;17(2):246-258. 74. Wong SY, Chan FW, Wong RL, et al. Comparing the effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction and multidisciplinary intervention programs for chronic pain: a randomized comparative trial. Clin J Pain. 2011;27(8):724-734. 62. Piet J, Hougaard E, Hecksher MS, Rosenberg NK. A randomized pilot study of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy and group cognitive-behavioral therapy for young adults with social phobia. Scand J Psychol. 2010;51(5):403-410. 75. Arch JJ, Ayers CR, Baker A, Almklov E, Dean DJ, Craske MG. Randomized clinical trial of adapted mindfulness-based stress reduction versus group cognitive behavioral therapy for heterogeneous anxiety disorders. Behav Res Ther. 2013;51(4-5):185-196. 63. Plews-Ogan M, Owens JE, Goodman M, Wolfe P, Schorling J. A pilot study evaluating mindfulness-based stress reduction and massage for the management of chronic pain. J Gen Intern Med. 2005;20(12):1136-1138. 76. Chhatre S, Metzger DS, Frank I, et al. Effects of behavioral stress reduction transcendental meditation intervention in persons with HIV. AIDS Care. 2013;25(10):1291-1297. 64. Schmidt S, Grossman P, Schwarzer B, Jena S, Naumann J, Walach H. Treating fibromyalgia with mindfulness-based stress reduction: results from a 3-armed randomized controlled trial. Pain. 2011;152(2):361-369. 77. Ferraioli SJ, Harris SL. Comparative effects of mindfulness and skills-based parent training programs for parents of children with autism: feasibility and preliminary outcome data. Mindfulness. 2013;4(2):89-101. JAMA Internal Medicine March 2014 Volume 174, Number 3 Copyright 2014 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ by a Florida International University Medical Library User on 05/06/2021 367 Research Original Investigation Meditation for Psychological Stress and Well-being 78. Hoge EA, Bui E, Marques L, et al. Randomized controlled trial of mindfulness meditation for generalized anxiety disorder: effects on anxiety and stress reactivity. J Clin Psychiatry. 2013;74(8):786-792. 79. Nakamura Y, Lipschitz DL, Kuhn R, Kinney AY, Donaldson GW. Investigating efficacy of two brief mind-body intervention programs for managing sleep disturbance in cancer survivors: a pilot randomized controlled trial. Iran Red Crescent Med J. 2013;7(2):165-182. 80. Omidi A, Mohammadkhani P, Mohammadi A, Zargar F. Comparing mindfulness based cognitive therapy and traditional cognitive behavior therapy with treatments as usual on reduction of major depressive disorder symptoms. Iran Red Crescent Med J. 2013;15(2):142-146. 81. Fournier JC, DeRubeis RJ, Hollon SD, et al. Antidepressant drug effects and depression severity: a patient-level meta-analysis. JAMA. 2010;303(1):47-53. 82. Hart W. The Art of Living: Vipassana Meditation as Taught by S. N. Goenka. Igatpuri, India: Vipassana Research Institute; 2005. 83. Schulz KF, Altman DG, Moher D; CONSORT Group. CONSORT 2010 statement: updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials. BMJ. 2010;340:c332. doi:10.1136/bmj.c332. Invited Commentary Moving Toward Evidence-Based Complementary Care Allan H. Goroll, MD Therapies that lie outside the spectrum of traditional, sciencebased clinical medicine and surgery are often labeled as complementary or alternative. These therapies range from herbal remedies and dietary supplements to meditation and acupuncture, and they derive from Eastern and Western traditions. Use is widespread and often promoted by commercial interests and practitioners, with prevalence estimates exceeding 50%.1 Their popularity derives in part from being available without prescription and the supposition that the label of natural makes them safe and preferable to pharmacologic and surgical treatments.2 Despite widespread use, many complementary therapies still lack a rigorous evidence base.3 The relative scarcity of scientifically derived data on efficacy and safety stems from a number of factors, ranging from a lack of financial incentives for practitioners and suppliers (why study something that is already profitable and accepted by patients?) to difficulty measuring outcomes.3 This unacceptable state of affairs for treatments that consume billions of health care dollars annually in the United States alone1 provided the stimulus for establishing at the National InstiRelated article page 357 tutes of Health a National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine in 1991. Its mission is “to define, through rigorous scientific investigation, the usefulness and safety of complementary and alternative medicine interventions and their roles in improving health and health care.”4 The Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality shares this mission. Their sponsorship and funding have begun to generate and make available scientific evidence on a wide variety of complementary therapies. Among complementary measures, meditation has occupied a special position, revered in religious circles and Eastern societies for centuries and rediscovered in the West in the mid-20th century by psychologists such as Abraham Maslow who were interested in its potential for enhancing human consciousness and experience. Widespread medical application followed about 10 years later, popularized by such bestselling books as The Relaxation Response by Herbert Benson.5 Mindfulness techniques, which seek to enhance selfawareness, and mantra methods, which aim for transcen368 dence, have been applied widely to treat stress and stressrelated conditions1,6 and are becoming popular for use in everyday life by a public that finds itself increasingly distracted and disrupted by endless interruptions and stressors.7 In this issue, Goyal and colleagues8 from The Johns Hopkins University report on their examination of best available evidence for the efficacy and comparative effectiveness of meditation. In their Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality–sponsored systematic review and meta-analysis of methodologically sound studies of mindful and transcendental forms of meditation, they attempt to address efficacy and comparative effectiveness with regard to psychological stress and well-being. They focus their review on best evidence, derived from randomized clinical trials involving patients with a mental health or physical condition and using active controls for determination of efficacy and comparative effectiveness. The active control studies are subcategorized by whether the control involves a nonspecific measure, such as education (which helps determine efficacy by controlling for time, attention, and expectation), or a specific intervention, such as exercise or progressive muscle relaxation (which provides for a comparative effectiveness assessment). They also grade studies for strength of evidence based on assessments for risk of bias, directness, consistency, and precision and categorized according to degree of confidence in the results by likelihood that further research would change the level of confidence. Only 3% of published trials examined met their inclusion criteria, making for a review of 47 trials of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) or transcendental (mantra-based) meditation. With the exception of MBSR studies providing moderate evidence of improvement in anxiety, depression, and pain and low evidence of improvement in stress/distress and mental health–related quality of life, the investigators found low levels of evidence of no effect or insufficient evidence of effect for improvements by MBSR or transcendental meditation in any of the other variables of psychological stress or wellbeing examined. In the comparative-effectiveness analysis, they found little evidence of any benefit compared with specific active measures, such as exercise, progressive muscle relaxation, or cognitive behavioral therapy.8 JAMA Internal Medicine March 2014 Volume 174, Number 3 Copyright 2014 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. 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