WHAT IS MOTIVATION? Research in motivation and emotion has revealed a lot about the human experience of what drives us and our emotional reactions to the world around us. Both animal and human studies have shown us much about the types of motives and how humans are motivated. Furthermore, research on emotions has shown us biological and psychological contributors to emotions and how to change maladaptive emotions. In this chapter, we review different theories of motivation, as well as review research on motives. Additionally, theories of emotions are introduced as we seek to understand the purpose and experience of emotions. The biological, psychological, and spiritual factors that contribute to both motivation and emotion are also explored. A discussion of a Christian approach to understanding motivation and emotion is presented first as we seek to understand why we do what we do and what contributes to our feelings about situations, other people, and ourselves. Why do you do the things you do? Have you ever done something that you wished you had not done? Have you ever been confused by your own behavior and wondered to yourself, “Where did that come from?” What about emotions and how you feel day to day? Have you ever had an emotional reaction to something that seemed to come out of nowhere? Have you ever felt anger, sadness, jealousy, or fear that you could not get rid of despite your best efforts? Have you ever felt happy when you heard a certain song or excited at the thought of an upcoming event? Furthermore, have your emotions ever caused you to do something that perhaps you would not have done if you had not felt the emotion? Have you ever been motivated by emotion to do something you wished you had not done? Or perhaps, you have been motivated by emotion to do something you are glad you did? As you will see throughout this chapter, motivation and emotion go hand in hand. In this chapter, you will learn about different theories of motivation and ways that science helps us understand what drives our behaviors. Additionally, you will see how emotions play a role in our lives. The origin of emotions and how they can be both adaptive and maladaptive will be explored. Additionally, the importance of studying both motivation and emotion will be clear as we explore these constructs as important to the human experience. APPLICATIONS OF MOTIVATION AND EMOTION INTEGRATING THE BIBLE WITH MOTIVATION AND EMOTION As we begin discussing motivation and emotion, it is important to see how the Bible describes these experiences. It is clear throughout Scripture that emotions are real and are experienced by both man and God. Throughout the Bible, we are given commands and encouragement regarding fear, anxiety, sadness, jealousy, anger, and despair, among others. Additionally, we see evidence that God experiences emotion. The Bible tells us that God was grieved at the state of man’s sin in Genesis 6. God is also described as displeased and angry in Numbers 11:1 when the Israelites complained. Furthermore, Jesus wept at the death of Lazarus (John 11:35) and showed righteous anger in the temple when it was being used for selfish gain (Matthew 21:12-13). Similarly, motivation is also seen in God. In John 3:16, for example, we see that God was motivated by His love for us to send His only Son to die for us. In 2 Peter 3:9, we see that God is patient with us because He is motivated by His desire for all men to come to repentance. God’s love and desire for us to know Him motivates His behavior toward us. As we begin our exploration of emotions and our study of what motivates us, it is important to note that God experiences both motivation and emotion. Also, because we have been created in God’s image, we experience emotions and motivation. In fact, nothing differentiates us from the rest of God’s creation like emotions and our motivations to act. While God’s emotions and motives are pure and holy, our emotions and motives have been tainted by the original sin. As described in Chapter 1, the Grand Narrative shows us how sin entered the world and affected everything. Our emotions and motivations are among the things that have been negatively affected by sin. While God’s motives and emotions are always righteous and good, ours, unfortunately, are not. Our sin nature can lead us to desire impure and selfish things and can lead us to feel negative and maladaptive emotions. Furthermore, our sin nature can lead us to do and feel things that we may not want to do and that do not honor God. Paul speaks of his own struggle with the sin nature that is present in all humans in his letter to the Romans. In Chapter 7 of Romans, he writes: For I do not understand my own actions. For I do not do what I want, but I do the very thing I hate. Now if I do what I do not want, I agree with the law, that it is good. So now it is no longer I who do it, but sin that dwells within me. For I know that nothing good dwells in me, that is, in my flesh. For I have the desire to do what is right, but not the ability to carry it out. For I do not do the good I want, but the evil I do not want is what I keep on doing. Now if I do what I do not want, it is no longer I who do it, but sin that dwells within me. So I find it to be a law that when I want to do right, evil lies close at hand. For I delight in the law of God, in my inner being, but I see in my members another law waging war against the law of my mind and making me captive to the law of sin that dwells in my members. Wretched man that I am! Who will deliver me from this body of death? Thanks be to God through Jesus Christ our Lord! So then, I myself serve the law of God with my mind, but with my flesh I serve the law of sin. (Romans 7:15-25) In this passage, we can see Paul’s struggle with his own sin nature and how it can motivate behaviors that he knows are not godly. However, he also shows the victory we can have over our human, fleshly motives through Jesus and surrendering to Him. A biblical model of motivation includes the acknowledgment that we are sinful and selfish and are often motivated by sin and selfishness, but the good news of the Gospel is that we have not been left in this sinful, selfish state. Through Jesus, we have been redeemed, and our sinful, selfish selves are being restored to God. While we are on this Earth, we will always struggle with our human sin nature, but as Paul relates in Romans 7, Jesus is delivering us from this and helps us live godly lives through His Spirit. As Christians, we should spend time evaluating what motivates us and praying for God’s help to align our hearts to Him if they are astray. In Psalm 139: 23-24, David writes: “Search me, O God, and know my heart! Try me and know my thoughts! And see if there be any grievous way in me, and lead me in the way everlasting!” In this and other Scriptures, we see that our hearts are not always aligned with God. Not only that, but as can be seen in this psalm, we might not always know what is motivating us deep in our hearts. As Paul shares in Romans 7, we need help from God to align our hearts to Him and behave like Him. One benefit of emotions is that they can reveal much of what is in our hearts and what motivates us. They can be indicators of where we need to ask for God’s help to grow and change. Additionally, emotions help us connect to others and God. As we go through the science of motivation and emotion, consider how the Bible talks about us being naturally motivated by our flesh and our responsibility to seek God’s help to overcome our natural, oftentimes selfish, desires. Similarly, consider how God has created us to feel emotions but not to be ruled by them or to engage in sinful behaviors as a result of them. We have been called to walk in the power of the Holy Spirit and, as a result, to demonstrate the fruit of the Spirit to others (Galatians 5). Furthermore, as we grow in our relationships with God, we are motivated more and more by His Spirit to seek things that honor and glorify Him. Consider this higher calling as you read about the science of human motivation and emotion. THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MOTIVATION The psychology of motivation commonly emphasizes four characteristics of motivation. First, motivational states are what initiate or stimulate activity. For example, the unpleasant feeling of thirst motivates us to seek out water to quench our thirst. Second, motivational states also guide and direct our behaviors toward a particular goal. If you are thirsty, motivation directs you to drink something. Third, motivational states sustain our goal-directed behaviors. The unpleasant feeling of thirst will act as persistent motivation to drink until our bodies are hydrated. Finally, the strength or intensity of a motivational state can vary and influences the strength or intensity of the goal-directed behavior. In the example of thirst, we can easily imagine how different degrees of dehydration can affect how strongly we are motivated. Furthermore, many factors play a role in our motivation. They are generally conceived of coming from the following four broadly defined sources: biological, emotional, cognitive, and social. Biological factors can be hunger, thirst, sleep, pain, or sex. Emotional factors include things like fear, panic, anger, pleasure, and happiness. Cognitive factors like goals, mindset, beliefs, perceptions, and expectations can also be a source of motivation. Finally, even social factors like family, affiliation, achievement, media, and culture play a role in our motivation. Motivation can be further divided into extrinsic and intrinsic motivation . Extrinsic motivation refers to the external sources of motivation, such as external rewards or avoiding punishments. In contrast, intrinsic motivation is the internal source of motivation, such as personal satisfaction and fulfillment. Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are highly influential determinants of our behavior. Therefore, motivation describes the force that accounts for the initiation, direction, persistence, and intensity of goal-directed behaviors. These forces can be internal or external and conscious or unconscious. Simply put, motivation provides the answer to why we think, feel, and behave the way we do. Because motivation provides the answers to why we think, feel, and behave the way we do, studying it can provide us with valuable insight into the human experience. This insight can help us find ways to facilitate optimum motivation and improve overall psychological well-being. The following section will examine the various factors that motivate people’s behaviors. Additionally, we will survey major theories that have been offered to explain human motivation in an attempt to answer the questions of where motivation comes from, how motivations relate to our behaviors, as well as how and why they change. BIOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIORISTIC APPROACHES The earliest theories of motivation were primarily influenced by biological and behavioral theories. Below we will look at instinct theory, drive-reduction theory, incentive theory, and finally, optimum arousal theory. Instinct Theory William James (1890), whom we mentioned in Chapter 3, proposed one of the first explanations for motivation with his instinct theory of motivation (see Figure 5.1). James was influenced by evolutionary theory, which emphasizes adaptations in behaviors that promote survival and reproduction. He believed that people, like animals, are motivated by instincts , which are rooted in our biology. Instinct can be defined as innate, predictable patterns of behaviors, which are universal across a species, that occur in response to specific stimuli. Figure 5.1 The Traditional Instinct Model The animal kingdom provides the most salient examples of instincts at work. For instance, a salmon swims upstream to spawn when the water temperature and length of days change. Likewise, birds migrate south for winter when temperatures drop, the days become shorter, and food supplies diminish. In each of these examples, we see a species respond to a specific environmental stimulus, which activates a biologically predisposed pattern of behavior. James pointed to the reflexive behaviors of newborn babies as evidence of biologically based instincts within humans. You will recall from Chapter 3 that newborns are born with a number of unlearned motor reflexes to sensory stimuli. For instance, when the baby’s cheek or the corner of its mouth is stroked, the baby will turn their head toward the touch and open its mouth (rooting reflex). Additionally, if anything is inserted in their mouth, they will close their lips and suck (sucking relax). However, these motor reflexes disappear within months as perceptual awareness and motor skills improve. James (1890) also suggested that many other “instincts” occur after infancy. For instance, the “instinct” of fear ensures our safety by alerting us to danger. Likewise, our social instincts help us establish relationships to find safety in numbers. Love and sex serve to ensure the procreation and survival of the species. James also mentions “instincts” for hunting, play, cleanliness, kleptomania, jealousy, anger, curiosity, sympathy, etc., all of which are based on our biological impulses. In time, thousands of “instincts” that accounted for behaviors were identified through circular reasoning, as any behavior could be identified as an instinct and then be used to explain the behavior. Eventually, James’s theory lost popularity. There was a growing recognition that all behaviors cannot be attributed to instincts since most are not unlearned or universal (i.e., hunting or kleptomania). His theory did not account for individual and cultural factors or the fact that physiological and psychological motives better explain most behaviors. In contemporary usage, instincts are generally used in the study of animal rather than human behaviors. Drive-Reduction Theory By the 1940s and 1950s, drive-reduction theory became the prominent theory of motivation. Fundamental to this theory is the concept of homeostasis, which is applied to behaviors. Drive-reduction theory suggests that the human body actively works to maintain homeostasis , a state of physiological equilibrium. As biological organisms, complex internal mechanisms regulate the body’s functioning to help ensure survival. An example would be how the body regulates blood pressure and heart rate to ensure they do not get too high or too low. Likewise, the body operates best when the body temperature is at an optimal level, about 98.6 degrees in adults. When body temperature drops below that threshold, it will begin shivering to generate heat. If body temperature exceeds that threshold, sweating will occur to help reduce body heat. Drive-reduction theory does consider individual factors. For instance, optimal levels for blood pressure will vary by age and gender, and heart rates look different when comparing athletes to non-athletes. Hunger is another good example, with some people being satisfied with very little food and others never appearing to be satiated. Regardless of individual variations of thresholds, when internal physiological states are not at optimal levels, we enter a state of disequilibrium. This creates a need , which describes the physiological state of deprivation that activates a drive, whereas a drive describes the psychological state of arousal or tension that is triggered by the unmet need. Drives trigger bodily responses and behaviors to satisfy the need and restore homeostasis. For example, when the body senses an imbalance because of a hydration deficit, the need (hydration) signals the brain to activate the drive (thirst). The unpleasant feeling of thirst motivates behavior (drinking) which satisfies the need (drive-reduction) (see (see Figure 5.2). Figure 5.2 The Drive-Reduction Theory of Motivation Interestingly, when some behaviors have been used to reduce a drive, they are more likely to be used again for the same needs when they arise later. That is, through negative reinforcement, some behaviors become habits. The strength of a habit increases as we use a particular behavior to reduce a particular drive. We can also derive pleasure from certain behaviors even after we achieve homeostasis. Since we only experience that pleasure when we are actively engaging in a behavior that satisfies a need, it can lead to overindulgence in some behaviors, such as overeating, oversleeping, or over-medicating. Although the drive-reduction theory has been influential, it does not provide an explanation for all behaviors. There are many times when our behaviors are not consistent with our physiological needs. As just mentioned, people often overeat. People will also experience a loss of appetite after fasting. In fact, we constantly see people engage in behaviors that will increase drives. Working out, dieting, having children, working multiple jobs, not sleeping, or going skydiving are all examples of behaviors that can lead to disequilibrium, but people continue to do them anyway. Finally, drive-reduction theory does not account for the behaviors that appear to be motivated by external stimuli, which leads to the following theory. Incentive Theory Incentive theory , which is rooted in behaviorism, suggests that we are motivated by positive and negative external stimuli called incentives . In contrast to drive-reduction theory, behaviors are directed toward attaining rewards and avoiding punishments, while drives eliminate unmet internal needs that cause negative feelings of tension and disequilibrium. Furthermore, while drive theories emphasize an internal push to action, incentive theory tells us that we are pulled to action by external stimuli. The strength in which we are pulled toward action is called incentive value . Incentive values differ according to the stimuli and are also influenced by various individual factors, like biology, cognition, experience, and anticipation. For instance, a cupcake probably has more incentive value than broccoli for most children (and adults, for that matter). This is because incentive value increases if past reward experiences are associated with pleasure. Anticipation of rewards is also a strong predictor of performance. It was first recognized in by Zeaman in 1949 when rats that had been given a taste of food ran through a maze quicker than their hungry counterparts that had not received a taste of food (see Figure 5.3). Figure 5.3 Zeaman’s Rat Experiment Note. In Zeaman’s (1949) study, (B) rats that had been given a taste of food ran through the maze quicker than (A) hungry rats that had not received a taste of food, indicating that the anticipation of food had incentive value that motivates the rats to race to the goal. Incentive theory has certainly had an influence and seems intuitive to most people. Parents have been removing and adding external stimuli to motivate positive behaviors in their children for a very long time. Today, it is common for incentives like raises, bonuses, stock options, and awards to be used by companies to encourage employee productivity. Additionally, advertising markets products in a way that increases the incentive value to manipulate consumers into purchasing products. Still, incentive theory, like the other theories of motivation, has limitations. First, incentives may not always motivate behavior the way we expect. For example, some employee incentives have been shown to reduce motivation and decrease job performance and satisfaction. Furthermore, incentives simply cannot account for all our behaviors since there are internal stimuli that motivate behaviors. Optimal Arousal Theory Another well-known theory of motivation is called the optimal arousal theory . As the name implies, motivation comes from the need to maintain an optimal level of arousal. Arousal , in this context, refers to a state of physiological and psychological activation. Arousal can be mental, emotional, or physical and is related to feelings of being alert, attentive, and awake. The optimal level of arousal theory rests on the assumption that all people have stimulus motives. Stimulus motives are innate needs humans (and animals) have for activity, discovery, object manipulation, and sensory stimulation. Unfamiliar external stimuli typically activate stimulus motives. Stimulus-motivated behaviors have been observed in animals and human subjects. Human babies provide a good example of stimulus motives at work. Babies appear to have an innate motivation to actively explore and discover. They are often observed manipulating objects with their hands and placing them in their mouths. These behaviors are seen throughout all childhood and adulthood as well. Although the need for stimulation seems intuitive, sensory deprivation studies provide evidence of the need for stimulation. People placed in sensory deprivation typically do not last very long. Given enough time, participants will experience impairment of intellectual and perceptual functioning, as well as emotional lability. Some experience hallucinations as well, which some have suggested is the brain’s way of creating stimulation during extreme deprivation. We will look a little closer at the need for stimulation later in the chapter. The amount of stimulation needed for arousal varies from person to person. Some people require continual activity and higher levels of stimulation to reach optimal levels of arousal, while others need decidedly less stimulation to be content. Levels of arousal that are too high or too low are typically not pleasant. Low levels of arousal can lead to boredom, apathy, or lethargy and motivate people to seek out stimulation. High levels of arousal can result in stress, anxiety, and even panic, which will lead people to engage in behaviors aimed to help reduce arousal. Consequently, people look for environments and experiences that are moderately stimulating. Depending on where someone is on the continuum of high to low arousal can have significant effects on motivation and performance. This observation was first made by Yerkes and Dodson in 1908. According to the Yerkes–Dodson Law (1908), the middle of the continuum is the optimal level of arousal and where performance is maximized. Yerkes and Dodson found that those on the low end of the continuum may be too apathetic or lethargic to accomplish a task efficiently; in contrast, those on the higher end may be too distracted by physical symptoms of anxiety or ruminating thoughts to perform a task well (see Figure 5.4). Figure 5.4 The Yerkes–Dodson Law What Does the Bible Say? While biological or behavioral theories of motivation may suggest that our behaviors are mere reactions to internal and external states, thus subtly removing control from the individual, the Bible presents a different view. In fact, when we read Scripture, we see very clearly that God has given us more active responsibility for behaviors. Free will is a foundational principle given to us by God. Human will is seen throughout Scripture as God gives us choices and then allows us to reap the consequences of our choices. We see the first instance of this in Genesis 2:17 when God told Adam, “But of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil you shall not eat, for in the day that you eat of it you shall surely die.” As seen here, God gave man choice and created consequences for our choices. Furthermore, God does not remove responsibility for our actions simply because some other force “made us do it.” When Adam passed the blame to Eve and Eve attempted to blame the serpent for her sinful actions, both were still seen as culpable and reaped consequences for their behaviors (Genesis 3:12-13). Additionally, in Galatians 5:13, we read, “For you were called to freedom, brothers. Only do not use your freedom as an opportunity for the flesh, but through love serve one another.” Therefore, when we evaluate the reasons for our behaviors and how they are motivated, it is important to recognize that multiple biological and/or social forces may lead us toward certain behaviors. However, God has given us responsibility for our behaviors. We are commanded to walk in the Spirit and not the flesh, thus pointing further to the multiple causes of behaviors and our choice to allow the Holy Spirit to help us overcome fleshly motivations for behavior. PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS The many behaviors humans display cannot be accounted for only by physiological needs and drives. If we evaluate our behaviors, it becomes obvious that many internal and external factors contribute to our motivation. This section will look at psychological needs that motivate our behaviors, such as safety, acceptance, affiliation, achievement, and recognition. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is probably the most widely known theory of human motivation. According to Maslow, people are motivated to satisfy their needs, and satisfying basic needs occurs before more advanced needs. Maslow proposed a 5-tier hierarchy of needs presented as a pyramid with basic needs at the bottom, psychological needs in the middle, and meta-needs at the top. The five levels of needs in order of priority are physiological needs, safety, belongingness and love, self-esteem, and self-actualization. Physiological Needs: These are the most basic and fundamental needs that are required for survival. Physiological needs include food, water, air, sleep, homeostasis, etc. Safety Needs: These include needs such as personal safety, financial security, health and wellness, resources, shelter, etc. Belongingness and Love Needs: These include social needs like friendship, family, romantic relationships, community, churches, etc. Self-esteem Needs: These include includes the need for appreciation, respect, recognition, personal worth, etc. Self-actualization Needs: The fifth and highest level of need is to reach one’s highest potential. It refers to the need for personal growth and development, selfawareness, learning, and creativity. Lower-level needs must be met before moving up in the hierarchy of needs. For instance, starving people are generally not concerned with their self-esteem needs; however, once they have met their physiological, safety, and social needs, they can attend to their self-esteem needs. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs can be divided into two types of needs: deficiency needs and growth needs. The first four levels (basic and psychological needs) come from deficiencies. As those needs are met, motivation decreases. At the top are the meta-needs , also known as growth needs. In contrast to deficiency needs, motivation continues to increase when growth needs are met. In fact, selfactualization is better described as an ongoing process. The need is never satisfied and is rarely an achieved state. According to Rowan (1998), the use of a pyramid is misleading because it implies an endpoint to personal growth. Later, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs was expanded to include two new growth or meta-needs. A cognitive level was added after self-esteem and before the newly added aesthetics needs. Not long after adding cognitive and aesthetics, transcendence, another growth need, was added at the very top after selfactualization (see Figure 5.5). Figure 5.5 Maslow’s Updated Hierarchy of Needs Note. Later, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs was expanded to include cognitive and aesthetic needs before self-actualization and transcendence needs at the top. Cognitive Needs: The need for exploration, understanding, knowledge, and meaning. Aesthetic Needs: The need for beauty, symmetry, form, and order. Transcendence Needs: The need is to transcend beyond the personal self and help others realize their own full potential. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is one of the most recognizable theories in psychology and Abraham Maslow is often listed as one of the most influential theorists in modern psychology (Compton, 2018). However, as reviewed by Compton (2018), Maslow’s work on needs has received quite a bit of criticism due to the lack of strong empirical support for this needs structure and the ideas presented within his theory. Some have questioned whether the order of the needs is correct (i.e., Do physiological needs always take precedence over safety needs?) or whether others, like cognitive needs or creativity needs, should be included. Furthermore, what self-actualization is and whether it is truly related to happiness/satisfaction has been debated. However, despite the questions surrounding Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, his theory remains important to our discussion of how needs are fulfilled and possibly ordered and what motives drive humans in life. More research is always needed. This should be viewed as an initial theory on needs which included more than just basic, physical needs. It introduced the concept that psychological or higher needs may also be important when considering what drives human behavior. Need Achievement Theory The motivation for achievement is complex and can vary from person to person. This can make it difficult to define and measure. Yet, it is clear that some people may have a strong internal drive to excel and succeed, while others seem to have a much lower desire to achieve. As the name implies, need achievement theory attempts to explain the individual differences in the motivation for achievement. The need for achievement (nAch) involves a desire to excel and succeed and a fear of failure or underachieving. The classic example of the need for achievement is academic performance. Those with strong achievement needs are overachievers who write a 20-page paper when only eight pages are required. They are driven to have the highest grades in the class and would be devastated by an A-. Others may be perfectly content with low grades as long as they pass the class. They do the bare minimum, and their motto is “Ds earn degrees.” Need for achievement is considered an approach-avoidance model because achievement-oriented behaviors motivate individuals to either approach or avoid a situation or task based on the strengths of the two competing motivations. If the desire to excel and succeed is stronger than the fear of failure, they will approach it. However, if their fear of failure is stronger than their desire to excel, they will avoid or withdraw. The incentive for achievement and the probability of success also influences motivation. Those who are low in need for achievement may become more motivated to achieve if the reward for success is high and the probability of failure is low. Interestingly, one study found that children high on need for achievement tend to be cautious in scenarios that involve risk, while those who are low in need for achievement tended to be either low-risk takers or high-risk takers in the same scenario (McClelland, 1958). The study had children play a game of ring toss for prizes but allowed them to stand as close or as far away as they wanted from the target. Those who were high on need for achievement typically stood a moderate distance away, but those who were low in need for achievement either stood very close or very far from the target, ensuring a high probability of success or failure. Although research shows that a high need for achievement is positively correlated with high achievement is not a guarantee of success. As might be expected, those who are highly intelligent and naturally gifted are often high achievers as well. Attribution Theory Not everyone will respond the same way to achievement. In fact, people tend to attribute successes and failures to a variety of internal (dispositional) and external (situational) causal factors. Attribution theory looks at how people attribute causes to behaviors or events and is helpful for understanding motivation, particularly in regard to achievement. Locus of Control According to Weiner (2008), attributions are dependent on one’s locus of control. Locus of control refers to the extent to which people attribute internal factors or external factors to their actions and their outcomes. Locus of control can be internally oriented or externally oriented. Those who are oriented to an internal locus of control believe they control their actions and outcomes. For example, they may attribute their success on a test to their ability or effort, both of which are under their control. They also take responsibility for failures and may attribute them to their lack of ability or effort. In contrast, those who have an external locus of control attribute their successes and failures to factors not under their control. A good grade on a test may be attributed to luck or the test being easy, whereas failures may be perceived as being due to an unfairly difficult test or not being given enough time to study. So, the outcomes of one’s actions are contingent on what they do or on environmental factors (internal vs. external). Another way to examine this mindset is to see if such an outlook occurs across a number of situations or only under very specific conditions (unstable vs. stable). Behaviors can be differentiated by stable and unstable causes. Stable factors do not vary by task and include ability and difficulty. In contrast, unstable factors, which include effort and luck, can vary greatly or be absent (see Figure 5.6). Figure 5.6 Four Important Possible Causal Attributions for Success and Failure Attributions and Need for Achievement Studies on attribution have demonstrated that the need for achievement is correlated with internal and external locus of control orientations. Those with an external locus of control orientation are typically lower in the need for achievement as they see it as being dependent on many factors outside themselves. Failures reinforce the belief that nothing can be done to improve outcomes and that challenges are to be avoided. According to Dweck (2006), it may also perpetuate the myth that intelligence is fixed and unchangeable (entity theory of intelligence ). Those with an internal locus of control orientation are typically high in the need for achievement. They are also higher in self-efficacy and resilience and have a growth mindset (Dweck, 2006). This is because they view intelligence as a malleable trait that can be increased with effort (incremental theory of intelligence ). This makes them much more likely to tackle challenges, and with work, they can develop new skills and abilities (Dweck & Grant, 2008). Motivation and Grit Dr. Deborah Windsor Industrial and Organizational Psychologist You don’t have to be a psychology student to be familiar with the terms “motivation” and “grit.” These are common terms that we use all the time. However, a common misconception is that these terms are interchangeable, and they are not. So then, you might ask, what is the difference between the two? I’m glad you asked! Let’s start with motivation. Motivation is the reason we engage in a task. For example, I do not like making coffee. However, I am motivated to make my coffee in the morning because I know I need the caffeine to help me wake up and get started with my day. As a student, you are motivated to attend class, even when you don’t necessarily want to, because you must do so to achieve a passing grade for the course. By doing this for each required course, you will eventually graduate with your college degree. Motivation can be divided into two categories: intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation is motivation that comes from within you, while extrinsic motivation comes from the outside. You are intrinsically motivated when you engage in a task because you enjoy it. By performing the task, you are motivated by the positive emotions generated within yourself, such as personal satisfaction, enjoyment, meaningful experience, sense of well-being, and fulfillment. These are some examples of intrinsic motivation: Taking a long hot shower because it is relaxing Hiking because you enjoy being out in nature Cooking because you like the creativity of experimenting with flavor combinations Taking a challenging course because you find the topic fascinating and want to learn more Volunteering because it makes you feel good to give to others Reading a book just for the pleasure of doing so While intrinsic motivation comes from within, extrinsic motivation is engaging in a task because we want to earn an external reward or prevent a punishment. The task may not be rewarding in and of itself or something we find enjoyable. The rewards can be tangible, such as money, grades, or awards. They can also be intangible such as praise, recognition, and respect. These are some examples of extrinsic motivation: Playing a sport to earn a scholarship Working to earn a paycheck Cooking because you are hungry Taking a challenging course because you need it to graduate Working hard so that you will receive recognition from your boss and coworkers Staying close to the speed limit so that you don’t get a speeding ticket Motivation, whether intrinsic or extrinsic, can come and go or change in intensity. A great example of this is setting a goal to lose 20 pounds so that you can be healthier and feel better. Your motivation on day one is extremely high. You follow your plan exactly and are very satisfied at the end of the day. You weigh yourself on day seven and are only down one pound even though you stuck to the plan. Your motivation drops somewhat. On day nine, you have a donut that someone brings into the office. Your motivation to eat that sweet confection is greater than your motivation to lose the 20 pounds. However, on day 10, you again feel extremely motivated and decide to refocus on your plan. This continues for a while, but gradually you find that you are less and less motivated to lose weight and soon just decide to maintain. However, springtime rolls around, and you once again are highly motivated to drop 20 pounds so that you will look great in your summer outfits. On the other hand, grit is deeper in its intensity than motivation. While motivation comes and goes, when we have grit, we are more likely to dig in and do whatever it takes to meet our goals. It is endurance and the ability to get back up time and time again after a setback. Someone with grit will continue until they overcome challenges rather than quit because of them. Grit is identifiable by the passion, perseverance, resilience, and tenacity a person exhibits as they power through challenges and adversity over an extended period of time to reach their goal. Grit is sometimes described as mental toughness as it takes self-discipline to continue pushing forward even when you are not feeling very motivated in doing so, but you must if you are to achieve your objective. So why should understanding motivation and grit matter to you as a student? For starters, being motivated will help you work toward your educational goals. Having grit will keep you going when you might otherwise be ready to give up. The great thing about grit is that it can be learned over time. It begins by finding what you are truly passionate about because that will fuel your desire to continue even when challenges pop up. Stay focused on your goals and have a positive attitude because it is easier to bounce back from a stumbling block if you believe in yourself. Don’t be afraid of a challenge. Embrace it as an opportunity to overcome an obstacle, making you stronger and more determined than ever not to give up. So, why are motivation and grit important to you as a Christian researcher? As a Christian, I believe that every word of Scripture is truth, and I also believe that everything included in Scripture was intentional in its purpose. Examples of motivation and grit are seen throughout the Bible, which speaks to their importance. For instance, we are all familiar with Noah and how he obeyed God and built the ark even though it took him many years to do so, and while doing so, everyone made fun of him. Noah was motivated to obey God’s directive and had the grit to accomplish the task. Paul was beaten, stoned, and thrown in jail several times, but he continued to spread the Word of God. Paul was motivated to spread the Word of God and had the grit to endure the pain that he went through to do so. Joseph was sold into slavery by his brothers when he was 17 and was thrown into prison for an offense he didn’t commit. Yet, he continued to exhibit integrity and kept his eyes on God. Joseph had the motivation to serve God and the grit to overcome the obstacles put in his path. Because the concepts of motivation and grit are seen throughout Scripture, I believe this gives weight to their importance. There is a collection of research on both motivation and grit, but much more is needed to understand the concepts fully, especially when it comes to grit. As Christian psychological researchers, this opens up opportunities to explore the real truth and add to the body of research on these important traits of human behavior. Contributed by Deborah Windsor. © Kendall Hunt Publishing Company. Self-Efficacy Attribution theory presents an active view of people. According to attribution theory, people do not simply behave but actively evaluate behaviors and try to make sense of them. When people fail or succeed, they try to understand the reasons why. Depending upon predispositions, personality characteristics, and previous histories, people ascribe causes to specific behaviors. Similarly, individuals appraise themselves and form judgments about themselves based on past experiences and feedback from others. As introduced in Chapter 4 as part of Bandura’s triadic reciprocal determinism theory of personality, self-efficacy is one of these important personal attributions that refers to an individual’s belief in their ability to execute the behaviors necessary to produce specific outcomes (Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1997). Those with high self-efficacy see themselves as capable and effective in most situations. Perceptions of self-efficacy are instrumental in determining what people do; hence, they are important, motivationally. Typically, people refrain from engaging in activities in which they expect to perform badly. Therefore, someone with low self-efficacy in a certain situation is less likely to try it than someone with higher self-efficacy. In contrast, those with high perceptions of self-efficacy are more likely to accept challenges. Slanger and Rudestam (1997) found that level of selfefficacy differentiated between high and low risk takers in sports such as skydiving, kayaking, rock climbing, and skiing. Perceptions of self-efficacy not only determine whether an individual will choose to engage in a task but also how much time and effort they will put into it. For example, someone with high self-efficacy in music will spend more time learning a piece of music than someone with low self-efficacy. We tend to give up more quickly when we do not perceive that we have the skills to succeed in an area. Due to its relationship to resilience, self-efficacy is a very important concept for education, learning, and growth. In a study that looked at students in 33 different schools, Williams and Williams (2010) found a significant relationship between persistence in math and self-efficacy. Those with higher levels of selfefficacy were more likely to work through difficult math problems than those with low self-efficacy. Sources of Self-Efficacy Judgments Research exploring factors that contribute to self-efficacy has revealed that direct experiences of success or failure are the most important contributors to self-efficacy. Personally executing and succeeding in a task builds an individual’s sense of self-efficacy. For self-efficacy to remain high, one must continue to complete tasks successfully with minimal mistakes. Once self-efficacy is built, occasional mistakes do not appear to impact one’s sense of self-efficacy. While it may seem that success in a situation is fairly objective and can be easily experienced by an individual, feedback from others is an important contributor to self-efficacy. Often individuals are unable to appraise their own performance in a situation, and receiving positive feedback from others can help build an individual’s sense of self-efficacy. Another way others can influence an individual’s sense of self-efficacy is through persuasion. When others express belief in a person’s abilities, it tends to raise an individual’s belief in their effectiveness and competence. Additionally, certain parenting styles are associated with children who score high on achievement motivation tests and self-efficacy. The parents of these children tend to do these things: Encourage the child to attempt difficult tasks, especially new ones. Offer praise and other rewards for successful attempts and perseverance. Encourage the child to find new ways to succeed instead of complaining about failure. Prompt the child to go on to a more challenging task. Each of these areas of parenting encourages children’s sense of self-efficacy, which contributes to the children doing well on achievement motivation tests. Building resilient learners who see learning as valuable, fun, and beneficial to problem-solving will have lasting impacts on their personal and professional successes. Additionally, people can build self-efficacy vicariously—that is, through observing others that are similar to them succeeding at tasks. Many individuals feel more confident completing a task after seeing it performed, and when someone similar to you succeeds at a task, you are more confident that you can as well. Finally, Bandura (1997) explains that emotions can have a direct impact on perceptions of self-efficacy. Under extreme psychological and physiological arousal conditions, for example, one might appraise that they are capable of outrunning a threatening grizzly bear or running into a burning building to save a baby. Additionally, situations that produce mild anxiety beforehand and exhilaration afterward can produce positive feelings in the individual that lead to self-efficacy in overcoming obstacles (see Figure 5.7). Figure 5.7 Sources of Information That Influence Judgment of Personal Effectiveness and Competence Efficacy and Expectancy-Value Theory It is important to note that people are not simple creatures. No matter how overwhelmingly positive someone’s personal judgment of self-efficacy is and how high their personal expectations of success, other factors are at play in motivating behavior. According to Eccles and Wigfield (2002), our choices, persistence, and performance are profoundly influenced by the value of the outcome one expects in a situation. The cost of the activity, in terms of the amount of effort required, sacrifices entailed, and other opportunities given up is also taken into account when deciding on whether to engage in a behavior. This is the basis of Eccles’s expectancy-value theory (Wigfield et al., 2009). In this theory, expectancy is similar to a judgment of self-efficacy in that it is an individual’s belief about how likely a situation is to turn out well. It is defined by the individual’s belief about how well they will do on a task. Value is a combined function of four factors: (1) the personal importance of the task in terms of how it fits into the individual’s self-image (attainment value); (2) its intrinsic value based on the personal satisfaction the person gets from doing the task; (3) its utility value, which has to do with what the task contributes to short- and long-term goals; and (4) its cost in terms of the amount of effort required, the probability of failure, and the associated burden and stress (see Figure 5.8). Figure 5.8 Eccles’s Expectancy-Value Theory of Motivation Is Used to Guide Our Choices and Our Efforts What Does the Bible Say? When we look at the expectancy-value theory, it is clear that personal benefit and individual reward are central to an individual’s choice to engage in a behavior. While that may be true for human motives, God teaches us how to reframe what would be considered “value” or “worth it.” In the following verses, we can see how God teaches us to look beyond the rewards on this earth and beyond our own personal gain when deciding to engage in behaviors. Through this biblical lens, we can see how He is teaching us to place our value on others’ gain and eternal reward. Matthew 6:19-21 “Do not lay up for yourselves treasures on earth, where moth and rust destroy and where thieves break in and steal, but lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust destroys and where thieves do not break in and steal. For where your treasure is, there your heart will be also.” Philippians 2:4 “Let each of you look not only to his own interests, but also to the interests of others.” 2 Corinthians 4:18 “… as we look not to the things that are seen but to the things that are unseen. For the things that are seen are transient, but the things that are unseen are eternal.” HUNGER AND SEX Hunger and sex are both linked to survival. Food provides the necessary sustenance needed for the body to function and prevents us from starving to death. Sex allows for reproduction, ensuring the species lives on. As such, God created humanity with a variety of motivations to engage in both. We will look at the key factors that are related to the motivation of hunger and sex, as well effects of sin on both. Hunger Drive Hunger can be simply defined as the need or desire to consume food. The mechanisms of hunger, however, are complex, and although hunger is probably the most extensively researched drive, it is not completely understood by scientists. What is clear is that there are a variety of physiological processes in place that influence hunger, satiation , and their associated behaviors. Although strongly driven by physiological processes, psychological and environmental factors also play a role in eating behaviors. The Biological Basis for Hunger The awareness of hunger often comes from gastric signals that can range from mild sensations of emptiness and stomach growling to more intense stomach pangs. One of the first hypotheses on hunger suggested that gastric activity was directly responsible for hunger. Cannon and Washburn (1912) tested this theory by having Washburn swallow a balloon attached to an air pressure machine. The balloon was inflated in Washburn’s stomach, simulating a full stomach and preventing hunger. It also allowed the balloon to touch the stomach wall so it could detect and record stomach contractions. While the balloon was inflated, Washburn recorded subjective sensations of hunger. They found that Washburn’s stomach contractions occurred at the same time he recorded feeling hungry, providing evidence that contractions cause hunger. Since then, however, numerous studies have demonstrated that hunger persists even after the stomach has been removed, providing evidence that the stomach is not the only mechanism of hunger. What is known is that during periods of fasting, motilin production in the upper small intestine increases, causing contraction in the small intestines and stomach. Ghrelin , sometimes called the hunger hormone, is produced and secreted by the stomach when it is empty. The primary function of ghrelin is to increase hunger. Ghrelin travels through the bloodstream to the hypothalamus, which has a high density of ghrelin receptors. You will remember from Chapter 2 that the hypothalamus is a peanut-sized structure located deep within the forebrain that maintains the body’s homeostasis and regulates hormones. Consequently, the hypothalamus plays a very important role in hunger and satiety. Two main areas in the hypothalamus are responsible for signaling hunger and fullness: the lateral hypothalamus (LH) and the ventromedial hypothalamus (VH). The lateral hypothalamus, which is often referred to as the “feeding center,” is considered a key in the regulation of hunger and eating behavior (Fakhoury et al., 2020). Satiated (full) lab animals will continue to eat when the lateral hypothalamus is stimulated. Surgical destruction or removal of the lateral hypothalamus results in a loss of hunger, eventually leading to starvation. The ventromedial hypothalamus, which is often referred to as the “fullness center,” signals satiety, or the feeling of fullness. When it is removed or damaged in lab animals, they become severely obese. Hunger is also connected to various metabolic factors. Blood sugar is derived from the foods we eat and is known to play an important role in hunger. The main type of sugar in the blood is glucose . It is a simple sugar that provides the major source of energy for the body’s cells, including the brain, which uses about 20% of the body’s supply. Glucose can be absorbed in the bloodstream without being broken down and is regulated by the hormone insulin. Glucose levels are monitored by nerve cells in the stomach, intestines, and liver that signal the hypothalamus when blood glucose is low, resulting in hunger. Fat from fat cells is released to provide energy until we can eat again. Eating restores homeostasis by bringing blood sugar levels into equilibrium and replenishing fat cells. It also causes fat cells to release leptin , which is often called the satiety hormone. Leptin enters the blood and circulates to the hypothalamus, where it signals satiety. Hunger is obviously tied to caloric intake and activity levels as metabolism provides the body with all the energy needed to function. However, metabolic rate , which is the amount of energy expended within a period, can vary greatly by individual. To maintain their weight, people with fast metabolisms will require more calories for the same amount of activity as someone with a slower metabolism. Set point theory suggests that the brain maintains a genetically predetermined weight range. In this model, the brain controls weight by regulating hunger hormones and metabolic rate. For example, leptin levels increase when weight goes above the set point, and ghrelin levels decrease. Likewise, leptin levels decrease, and ghrelin increases when weight is lost. The brain also regulates the metabolism to adapt to caloric intake. When calories are restricted, the body will slow the metabolism and can go into “starvation mode,” where certain bodily functions are temporarily ceased or slowed to conserve energy. Studies have shown that people who have lost weight have lower metabolic rates than people of the same size who have not lost weight. This may explain weight loss is so difficult to maintain. Psychological and Environmental Factors of Hunger Although set point theory is helpful, this theory cannot account for the increase in obesity rates that have been reported in the last 50 years since, theoretically, set points should be maintained. It seems likely that environmental factors are at play as well. An alternative to set point theory is settling point theory . Settling point theory acknowledges the internal factors but emphasizes behavior and environment over biology. So, while this theory agrees that genetics and metabolism play a role in hunger and weight management, it also asserts that environmental cues, learned feeding behaviors, and ultimately, food choice are major contributing factors as well (Speakman et al., 2011). Other theories also include psychological and social factors. Psychological factors such as mood, emotion, and stress are known to contribute to eating behaviors. Eating is pleasurable and can be used to compensate for negative affective states and can cause overeating. Socially, some communities and cultures appear to have higher prevalence rates of obesity while others have healthier body weights. External stimuli such as taste, smell, and the appearance of food are also related to food cognitions and can stimulate and satiate hunger (Ombrato & Phillips, 2021). It is well known that food with high palatability stimulates hunger and increases intake (Sorenson et al., 2022). Finally, to regulate food intake effectively, organisms must be equipped with mechanisms that accomplish four tasks. First, organisms must be able to detect internal food needs. Second, they must be able to initiate and organize eating behavior. Third, organisms must be capable of monitoring the quantity and quality of food eaten. Finally, they must be able to detect when enough food has been consumed to stop eating. Scientists have tried to understand these processes by relating them to peripheral mechanisms in different parts of the body, like stomach contractions, or central brain mechanisms, like the functioning of the hypothalamus. Yet, if any one of these processes does not function correctly, it can result in under or overeating. Obesity Unfortunately, the systems that control hunger do not always work the way they should and can lead to obesity. Obesity is defined as an abnormally high percentage of body fat, and it can lead to significant health issues like cardiovascular disease, hypertension, respiratory illnesses, diabetes, some types of cancers, and joint and back problems. It is also associated with premature death. Globally, obesity rates have doubled since 1980, with about 15% of the world’s population meeting the criteria. Two-thirds of the U.S. adult population is overweight, and more than one-third are obese (see Figure 5.9). Figure 5.9 Prevalence of Obesity in the U.S. Population, 2017-2018 Several factors have been implicated in the cause of obesity. Genetics have been implicated with most obese children having one or more parent who is obese, and only 10% of obese children do not have obese parents. Genetics may explain why some people have faster metabolic rates while others have slower metabolisms. People who are obese also have more fat cells than people who are of normal weight, which may lead to a stronger sensation of hunger that may come sooner than people who are considered to be normal weight. This may help explain why only 6% if the people who have successfully lost weight will be able maintain their reduced weights. U.S. Prevalence Rates The high rates of obesity are primarily attributed to diet and activity levels. Today, processed, calorie-dense foods that are high in sugar and fat are readily available, cheap, and popular. Poor diets combined with a sedentary lifestyle increase the likelihood of being overweight significantly. These habits are also seen in childhood and adolescence. Obesity rates among children and adolescents in the United States have more than tripled since the 1970s, suggesting that changes in diet and activity are the major causes of obesity rather than genetic or metabolic factors (CDC, 2019). Socioeconomic status plays a role in obesity as well since unprocessed foods tend to be more expensive and take longer to prepare than processed foods. Activity levels have decreased as well with the advent of digital technology. Sadly, once adolescence is reached, poor eating and exercise habits have been established and reinforced so often that they are very difficult to change. Body mass index (BMI) is a measure of body fat using height and weight that can be applied to adult men and women (see Figure 5.10). Body mass index is a person’s weight in kilograms/pounds divided by the square of height in meters/inches. Although it does not measure body fat directly, it has been shown to be moderately correlated with more direct measures of body fat like skinfold thickness measurements, densitometry (underwater weighing), bioelectrical impedance, air displacement plethysmography, and dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA). There is also a correlation between body mass index and various metabolic and disease outcomes. Body mass index is an inexpensive and easy-to-perform method of screening for weight categories such as underweight (below 18.5), healthy (between 18.5 and 24.9), overweight (between 25.0 and 29.9), obese (between 30 or 39.9), and severely obese (40 or higher). However, perfectly healthy people like athletes may have a high body mass index if they have above-average muscle mass. So, although it is not a universal index of being overweight, it is relatively reliable, quick, and easy to calculate. The following chart applies to adults and not to children. Children would follow a different calculation given their rapid growth and variability across development. Figure 5.10 Body Mass Index (BMI) Chart Anorexia, Bulimia, and Binge Eating Disorder Preoccupation with weight, body shape, or food can lead to disordered patterns of eating such as hyperphagia (overeating) and hypophagia (undereating). Anorexia nervosa , bulimia nervosa , and binge-eating disorder are classified as eating disorders by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5-TR) and can be dangerous. Anorexia nervosa is diagnosed when an individual weighs less than 85% of their expected weight. Its symptoms include a persistent unwillingness to eat, accompanied by a significantly distorted body image and an intense fear of gaining weight. Anorexia nervosa can lead to serious medical issues such as cardiovascular problems, irregular heartbeat, low blood pressure, gastrointestinal problems, kidney problems, and bone and muscle loss. Bulimia nervosa, on the other hand, is characterized by patterns of intense, outof-control overeating, followed by purging behaviors intended to eliminate excessive caloric intake and avoid weight gain. Purging behavior typically includes vomiting and may involve misusing laxatives, diuretics, enemas, and diet pills. Purging can have many negative health consequences, such as nutritional deficiencies, dehydration, irregular menstruation in females, and digestive problems. Additionally, frequent vomiting can lead to serious tooth decay and gum disease. Bulimia is most common among adolescent girls. An individual is diagnosed with bulimia when this pattern of behavior occurs at least once a week over a period of 3 months. Binge-eating disorder is also marked by uncontrolled episodes of compulsive overeating. Although it resembles bulimia nervosa in the binging behaviors, it does not include purging or other attempts to compensate for excess calories. Thousands of calories can be consumed in one binge, leading to weight gain. Whereas individuals with bulimia are usually thin or of normal weight, those with binge eating disorder are typically overweight or obese. Research indicates that some people are more at risk for developing an eating disorder. Genetic and environmental factors obviously play a role, but perhaps the most influential factor for an eating disorder is the societal pressure to maintain an unrealistically thin body. This pressure to be thin is strongest in young females from western countries. Although eating disorders can occur at any age, they typically begin in adolescence or early adulthood (12 and 25 years). The onset of anorexia peaks at age 14 and then again around age 18. Bulimia peaks at age 19, and binge eating disorder appears even later, around age 25 (Keel et al., 2010). The vast majority of diagnosed eating disorders occur in females. Lifetime prevalence rates for anorexia nervosa are believed to be about 0.5% and 2-3% for bulimia nervosa. Binge eating is believed to be much higher. There are a variety of possible therapies for anorexia, bulimia, and binge-eating disorder, including cognitive behavioral therapies, medications, and sometimes in-patient treatment. Sexual Motivation It is clear that sex can be a powerful drive for humans, yet psychologists still do not fully understand all the mechanisms of sexual motivation. Although procreation is necessary for the survival of the species, it is not essential for life, like eating and drinking. Yet, it is evident that numerous physiological factors contribute to sexual motivation. Hormones contribute to two aspects of sexual behavior, which include organizational and activating effects. Organizational effects are permanent changes in the brain that alter the way an individual responds to hormones. The activating effects are reversible changes in behavior, which remain as long as certain hormone levels are elevated. Consequently, hormones play a very important role in not only sexual functioning but sexual motivation. As discussed in Chapter 3, the production of sex hormones (estrogen in females and androgens in males) begins in puberty. The release of estradiol and testosterone from the gonads (ovaries in females and testes in males) is responsible not only for the development of the primary and secondary sex characteristics but also for dramatic increases in sexual drives. Each hormone group is found in both males and females but has dramatically different levels in each sex. In males, testosterone is the primary hormone involved in sexual motivation. Higher testosterone levels are associated with increased sex drive, and lower testosterone levels are associated with decreased sex drive. In females, estrogen and progesterone are the main hormones implicated in sexual motivation. Typically, estrogen increases sexual motivation, while progesterone decreases it. Oxytocin and vasopressin, found in both males and females, also appear to contribute to sexual motivation in both sexes (see Figure 5.11). Figure 5.11 Sex Hormones across the Lifespan Although it is clear that hormones contribute to sexual functioning and motivation, hormones do not account for all of our sexual drives. In fact, when the sexual organs that are responsible for producing sex hormones (gonads) are removed, sex drives are not necessarily adversely affected. Women typically experience very little change in their sex drive after having their ovaries removed. So, like many other human behaviors, sex is influenced by biological, psychological, sociological, and developmental factors. It is evident that some aspects of sexual motivation are learned and culturally influenced. Diversity of beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors related to sex is seen across cultures, which plays an important role in determining what sexual behaviors are considered acceptable and even what are considered sexually arousing. Every major religion across the globe has rules and recommendations around sexual behavior. This is for a good reason, as there are often lifelong consequences associated with sexual behavior that are quite distinct from other drive-based, motivational behaviors. Some of these consequences include dramatic changes in relationships, pregnancy, abortion, sexually transmitted diseases, guilt/shame, and -intimacy issues (Vasilenko et al., 2012). There are obvious benefits to sex, especially when occurring in the confines of a trusting, loving, and affirming marriage. Some of these include improved intimacy in your marriage, enhanced immune response, longer life span, lower blood pressure, better sleep, lower heart attack risk, reductions in certain types of cancer, stress relief, and improved mental health (Anderson, 2013). Romantic attraction is another important component of sexual motivation. Attraction is an interesting phenomenon that appears to involve multiple interacting factors. The first and most obvious is physical attraction. Physical attraction is the primary determinant for romantic attraction, particularly early on in a relationship, and in men, who tend to value physical attractiveness more than women. Proximity plays a role in attraction as well. Typically, increased exposure leads to increased comfort and attraction. People also tend to be attracted to those with similarities, such as beliefs, attitudes, and values. This is why romantic partners are more likely to be around the same age and be of the same race, religion, education level, and social class. Finally, people are attracted to those who reciprocate their attraction. Romantic attraction often leads to romantic love, which also influences sexual motivation. The experience of romantic love includes passion, intimacy, and commitment, and each dimension influences sexual motivation. The phases of human sexual response in males and females have similar patterns (e.g., excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution). However, males and females differ in the time it takes to reach each phase. Additionally, females have a greater likelihood of achieving multiple orgasms. However, sex is not simply a biological response; it also includes psychosocial factors that can significantly influence sexual enjoyment and motivation. One study involving 2,035 married participants in an online assessment of marriage had similar findings. It showed that couples that wait until marriage to have sex are more satisfied sexually than couples who had sex before marriage. Furthermore, the study found that couples who did not have premarital sex had happier, more stable marriages. In fact, the study showed that couples who engaged in sex before marriage rated the quality of sex 15% lower than those who waited until marriage to have sex. They also rated relationship stability and satisfaction 22% and 20% lower, respectively (Busby et al., 2010). Another more recent, nationally representative study found that religious people have more satisfying sex lives and in some cases, have sex more frequently (Craney, 2020). While there are many possible explanations as to why this is the case, the research seems to suggest that focusing on the quality of the relationship while building trust, rather than sex, was critical to the formation of long-term relationship success. What Does the Bible Say? The Bible actually has a lot to say about sex because it is important. If it was not important, then it would not be exploited in ads, television, and movies. Genesis 2:18-25 “Then the Lord God said, ‘It is not good that the man should be alone; I will make him a helper fit for[e] him.’ Now out of the ground the Lord God had formed every beast of the field and every bird of the heavens and brought them to the man to see what he would call them. And whatever the man called every living creature, that was its name. The man gave names to all livestock and to the birds of the heavens and to every beast of the field. But for Adam[g] there was not found a helper fit for him. So the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall upon the man, and while he slept took one of his ribs and closed up its place with flesh. And the rib that the Lord God had taken from the man he made[h] into a woman and brought her to the man. Then the man said, ‘This at last is bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh; she shall be called Woman, because she was taken out of Man.’ Therefore, a man shall leave his father and his mother and hold fast to his wife, and they shall become one flesh. And the man and his wife were both naked and were not ashamed.” I Corinthians 6:18-20 “Flee from sexual immorality. Every other sin a person commits is outside the body, but the sexually immoral person sins against his own body. Or do you not know that your body is a temple of the Holy Spirit within you, whom you have from God? You are not your own, for you were bought with a price. So glorify God in your body.” I Corinthians 7:2 “But because of the temptation to sexual immorality, each man should have his own wife and each woman her own husband.” EMOTION When we look at what motivates people, emotion is an important component. Not only do emotions often precede and motivate behaviors, but emotions also follow many behaviors and experiences, leading them to be reinforced or punished. As Turner and Goodin (2008) explain, people feel positive emotions when they succeed in attaining a goal. In contrast, people’s failure can lead to negative emotions. Everyone has memories of happiness or sorrow that are associated with different experiences or behaviors that affect whether they engage in behaviors again in the future. Have you ever felt embarrassed after you said something silly or did something foolish? Have you ever told a joke and received blank stares, which led to embarrassment? Or perhaps you have told a joke and received roars of laughter that made you feel good? Each of those emotions that followed your behavior likely affected whether you did that behavior again. As will be seen in the rest of the chapter, emotions are a fundamental part of human motivation and human experience. What Is Emotion? Emotion (also known as affect) is more difficult to define than one might think. We all can recognize emotions when they are happening and know that the experience of emotions involves physiological responses, thoughts, and feelings. In research, emotions have been defined as complex feeling states that include predictable physiological arousal, cognitions, and behaviors. Furthermore, they have two broad dimensions: intensity and positivity/negativity. Regarding the first dimension, most emotions can range in intensity from low to high. For example, sadness can range from mild sadness to extreme despair. Additionally, emotions can be described in terms of their positivity or negativity. Happiness, joy, love, and hope are considered positive emotions, while sadness, anger, and frustration are generally considered negative emotions. What Does the Bible Say? When we look at the range of emotions that humans can experience (both positive and negative), we may find ourselves asking, “Are emotions biblical?” It is easy to see how emotions like joy or happiness may be biblical, but what about anger or sadness? A quick search through the Bible reveals that a vast array of emotions are definitely a part of the human experience. Take a look at the following verses: Psalms 42:3 “My tears have been my food day and night, while they say to me all the day long, ‘Where is your God?’” Galatians 5:22-23 “But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, self-control; against such things there is no law.” John 11:35 “Jesus wept.” Furthermore, other verses instruct us on what we are to do with our emotions: Ephesians 4:13 “Let all bitterness and wrath and anger and clamor and slander be put away from you, along with all malice.” Ephesians 4:26-27 “Be angry and do not sin; do not let the sun go down on your anger and give no opportunity to the devil.” Psalm 56:3 “When I am afraid, I put my trust in you.” Psalm 42:5-6a “Why are you cast down, O my soul, and why are you in turmoil within me? Hope in God; for I shall again praise him, my salvation and my God.” Proverbs 29:11 “A fool gives full vent to his spirit, but a wise man quietly holds it back.” So, are emotions biblical? When we look at emotions through the lens of Scripture, it seems that emotions are part of the human experience, and we are called to act on them in godly ways. Life will come; we will have troubles (John 16:33), and those troubles will cause emotions. However, understanding how to biblically respond when emotions arise is part of becoming more like Christ and perfecting in His image. Take in the words of David in Psalm 73: When my soul was embittered, when I was pricked in heart, I was brutish and ignorant; I was like a beast toward you. Nevertheless, I am continually with you; you hold my right hand. You guide me with your counsel, and afterward you will receive me to glory. Whom have I in heaven but you? And there is nothing on earth that I desire besides you. My flesh and my heart may fail, but God is the strength my heart and my portion forever. For behold, those who are far from you shall perish; you put an end to everyone who is unfaithful to you. But for me it is good to be near God; I have made the Lord God my refuge, that I may tell of all your works. Psychologists believe, however, that emotions are more than just our affect— or feelings—in a given situation. They are actually complex feeling states that include three distinct components: physiological arousal, cognition, and behaviors. The physiological arousal component of emotion is the predictable bodily arousal and changes that we see in emotion. (Arousal and emotion will be discussed more in detail later.) The cognitive component of emotion includes the way we think and appraise a feeling in a situation, as well as the judgments we make about the feeling and/or arousal. The behavioral component of emotion includes all of the ways we express emotion (i.e., facial gestures), as well as our behavioral responses to emotion (i.e., our tendency to run away or approach something). While emotions are fairly difficult to measure and study, we know that predictable physiological responses, cognitions, and behaviors accompany emotions. For example, imagine the last time that you were angry. Think about what you felt in your body from a physiological perspective or what behaviors you may have demonstrated. It is likely that your anger was accompanied by increased heart rate and respiration rate, as well as other sympathetic nervous system responses. Also, you likely demonstrated changes in the volume of your voice or your body language. As seen by this and other examples of emotions we all have experienced, consistent patterns of physiology and behavior accompany emotions, and these elements are key components of emotions. In addition to defining what emotion is, researchers have worked to identify the number of different emotions humans experience. It is difficult to agree on the exact number of emotions experienced by humans, and there are several thousand words in the English language to describe emotional experiences. However, researchers have presented some ways to categorize and understand the emotions we experience. Izard (2009) suggested that there are really only six distinct emotions that are experienced in varying degrees of intensity to create other emotional states. According to Izard (2009), these six distinct emotions are joy/happiness, interest, fear, disgust, anger, and sadness. Parrott (2004) classified emotions into related secondary and tertiary emotions. In his approach, a primary emotion of joy can be broken into secondary emotions of cheerfulness, zest, contentment, optimism, and relief, for example. From there, secondary emotions can be further delineated into tertiary emotions. Each of the secondary emotions of joy has related tertiary emotions. For example, the tertiary emotions associated with the secondary emotion of cheerfulness are bliss, amusement, jolliness, and ecstasy, among others. Regardless of how emotions are labeled or described, humans experience many different emotions, each with its specific experience. In addition to disagreement over the number of emotions we experience and how to categorize them, researchers also debate whether certain emotions are positive or negative. In fact, for some emotions, it seems they can sometimes be positive and sometimes be negative. Feeling surprised is an example of an emotion that can be both positive and negative. If you have ever been the recipient of a surprise birthday party, you likely have experienced that surprise when people jumped out from behind chairs and couches as positive. However, if you were walking across a parking lot to your car at night and someone jumped out at you, you likely would experience that surprise as negative. This example points to the importance of cognitive appraisal in the labeling of emotions. Both events would elicit similar physiological responses of increased heart rate and respiratory rate, but they would not be interpreted or experienced similarly. From this, we can see that emotion is not just the result of our physiological reaction to stimuli but is due to our subjective appraisal of the stimuli and its physiological reaction. Surprise is pleasant when it is a party (for most) but unpleasant when it is in the dark in a parking lot. This exemplifies what researchers call the subjective experience of emotion. The subjective experience of emotion has six characteristics: Emotions are transitory. Emotions show valence, meaning they are positive or negative. Cognitive appraisals evaluate the emotional stimuli. Emotions elicit an action tendency or provide motivation to act. Emotions alter thought processes. Emotions invoke passions, which are behaviors that you do not directly initiate. Understanding Emotion Emotion and Arousal One key component of emotion is arousal. Arousal refers to the physiological and psychological changes accompanying emotion that can be detected and measured. In situations of high arousal, the body’s physiological systems prepare the individual to respond. If arousal becomes too high, panic may result, and the effectiveness of behavior may drop. The term arousal has both physiological and psychological meanings. Physiological arousal differs based on the emotion, but in each case, it involves a physical change in the body due to an emotional experience. In the case of fear, anger, or anxiety, physiological arousal is seen in increased sympathetic nervous system activity that prepares the individual to react. Known as the fight or flight response (see Chapter 2), the sympathetic nervous system produces an automatic physiological reaction to any event that is perceived as stressful or threatening. This acute stress response prepares the body physiologically to either fight or flee and can be seen in emotions where that behavioral response may be necessary. In addition to physiological arousal, another component of arousal is psychological arousal. Psychological arousal refers to cognitive or psychological changes that occur in response to an emotion. Increased alertness or vigilance can be seen in many situations and are a piece of the arousal component of emotion. DISCUSSION ON RESEARCH IN MOTIVATION AND EMOTION Arousal during emotion is important because research has shown that arousal level can affect how effective one’s behavior is during a situation. As discussed earlier in the chapter, different situations require different arousal levels; if someone’s arousal is too low or too high for the situation, their behaviors may not be effective. For example, someone who is asleep or falling asleep has a very low arousal level. Suppose someone is in this state of sleepiness, and an emergency arises that requires that the person respond quickly. In that case, they will not have the proper arousal level to react and do what is necessary to respond to the situation. Similarly, if someone’s arousal level is really high, they may be ineffective in a situation that requires quiet attention or careful thinking through a problem. High arousal, like is seen in anxiety, fear, and panic, explains why some students do poorly on tests. According to Chen (2009), considerable research shows that anxiety negatively impacts school performance at all levels. Exploring the Process Model of Emotion Regulation Mark Myers, Ph.D. Have you ever made the statement, “You make me angry”? It sounds odd if you think about it, doesn’t it? Can someone else really dictate your emotional experience? That would give them quite a bit of power over you. Is it true that you could be sitting there in a room as happy as a kid in a pile of puppies, and in walks a person who sucks the life out of you like a dementor? Strangely and most likely, we all have had a similar experience: the random intrusion of a bully, a scary teacher, or that person who seems to conjure up drama like they are a lead character in Mean Girls. They show up, and the emotions just follow. How much influence do we have over our emotions? Where do they come from? Why do some have problems regulating their emotions more than others? Researchers have been whittling away at these questions for decades. One model from Dr. James Gross of Stanford University gives us an interesting perspective. The model is called the Process Model of Emotion Regulation (Webb et al., 2012). The model has a surprising amount of flexibility and self-directed influence involved. Gross (2007) suggests that emotions can be generated and regulated at the same time. The below picture illustrates this. The model suggests that there are two key areas of strategic development and regulation of emotion: Antecedent and Response–the before, during, and after of the emotional experience. The Antecedent experience involves the situation, our attention, and our appraisal, while the Response portion of the experience involves the modulation (exertion of change or influence over something) of the resulting 1) experience, 2) behavior, or 3) physiological effect of the emotion. In other words, modulation attempts to change the resulting experience the emotion is producing in you. Trying to suppress an emotion or numb the experience would be a response modulation. Where this model is perhaps most practical is in the five points at the top of the illustration. These depict the five processes, or sets of processes, that we use to influence the development and regulation of our emotions. Situation Selection involves the choices we make early on as to whether we place ourselves in or avoid certain situations. Situation Modification describes the process of altering the situation we are in. An example of this would be choosing to sit in the back of a classroom (situation) for the purpose of reducing your exposure to the teacher and other students. Attentional Deployment involves the use of our attention in a situation where we choose to focus on certain aspects of the moment. No doubt, many a class has raced by when a student’s attention was drawn to the cute person sitting in the next row. This is Attention Deployment, and we’ve all used it to our advantage as a regulatory mechanism. It might be that the kid in your first-grade English class who wouldn’t pay attention was simply regulating their emotional experience. The next point across the top of the illustration is Cognitive Change. This process is one we are all familiar with. It is the way in which we appraise (assign value or meaning) or reappraise what is happening in that moment. The kid in the class may be appraising the situation as a threat, a bore, or hugely important to their life. This appraisal has a high impact on the experienced meaning of the moment and, in turn, the emotions that arise. The next and final set of processes involves modulating the feeling, behaviors, and physiological experiences to the emotions that arise (response-focused strategies). We may feel threatened, look scared (behavior), and start to sweat (physiological). We then would want to modulate that by regulating our breathing, taking a drink, or, the most popular at the moment, scrolling through our phone. Interestingly, regulating emotional experience is fundamental to any counseling strategy. In fact, you may be able to identify how certain counseling theories relate to this model, such as how Cognitive Behavioral Therapy seeks to engage and alter these processes (attention and appraisal) to modify our emotional experience and mood. An important hidden feature of this interesting model of emotion regulation is that the only way a person could alter the automatic and habitual experience of emotion generation would be to become aware in the moment and purposely affect change in one of the five processes. If we are aware, then we can make choices, select certain situations, modify them, attend to certain parts and not others, appraise and even cope in more healthy ways. If we are not, we typically follow our default strategy and wonder later why we acted the way we did. At times, we stumble on Bible verses that admonish us to do what seems impossible. An example of this would be Ecclesiastes 11:10: “So then, banish anxiety from your heart and cast off the troubles of your body, for youth and vigor are meaningless.” For someone struggling with anxiety, verses like these may seem idealistic or induce shame for not having enough faith in God. Since God not only wrote the Bible but also fashioned our brains, perhaps there is additional guidance on how to do this by studying the mind and our emotional worlds, giving us more understanding of how it might be possible to take responsibility for, or own, our emotional worlds. Since emotions are essential to a vital human experience and arguably, without them, life would be a complete bore, we might be well-served to practice developing strategies that enhance our experiences and promote connection and forgiveness, and even allow for a peaceful, less anxious life. Strangely, this model suggests that we, not others, have the tools to do this. References Webb, Miles, E., & Sheeran, P. (2012). Dealing with feeling: A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of strategies derived from the process model of emotion regulation. Psychological Bulletin, 138(4), 775–808. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027600 Contributed by Mark Myers. © Kendall Hunt Publishing Company. Need for Stimulation Similar to different behavior requiring different levels of arousal for success, research has also examined sensory deprivation and our need for stimulation. In a classic experiment on sensory deprivation, Hebb and his colleagues (Hebb, 1972; Heron, 1957) paid college students 20 dollars a day to do “absolutely nothing.” Students laid in a cot with a U-shaped pillow over their ears, a white noise machine to dampen their sense of hearing, a translucent visor over their eyes to restrict their vision, and cardboard tubes over their hands and arms to limit their sense of touch. In this greatly restricted sensory environment, they only got up to use the bathroom or eat. Despite the high payment for doing nothing, most participants only lasted two to three days before asking to be released from the experiment. In a more recent demonstration of the effects of sensory deprivation, the BBC had six volunteers spend 48 hours alone in a totally dark nuclear bunker (Total Isolation, 2008). Similar to Hebb’s studies, the participants asked to be released before the end of the demonstration, further showing that most people cannot endure sensory deprivation for very long. This points to our need for stimulation. Interestingly, not only is lack of stimulation mentally uncomfortable, but other findings have suggested that cognitive impairments and perceptual functioning are also affected when stimulation from the environment is too low. In the BBC demonstration, memory tests were conducted on participants, and it was found that one participant performed 36% worse on memory tests after the deprivation. Additionally, participants demonstrated emotional changes that started as mere mood fluctuations and grew into negative emotions such as anger and fear. Three of the six participants in the BBC study also reported hallucinations involving objects such as snakes, zebras, and oysters. A fourth became convinced that her sheets were soaking wet. Other deprivation experiments have had similar outcomes (Mason & Brady, 2009). Sensory deprivation studies like these consistently suggest that humans have a need for sensory stimulation. Related to physiological and psychological arousal seen in emotion research, it appears that humans require a certain level of arousal to function well. If arousal is too low, then boredom and other emotions can set in. Similarly, research shows that individuals may seek out experiences that raise their level of arousal when they feel low stimulation and boredom. This need for stimulation is the basis for the optimal arousal theory of motivation, which was discussed earlier and is a key physiological component of emotion. Sources of Arousal The autonomic nervous system produces the physiological changes that are experienced during arousal. This system automatically responds to the environment and is not ordinarily under a person’s conscious control. We cannot easily “will” our hearts to beat faster or our respiratory systems to quicken. However, we can engage in exercises that will slow our autonomic nervous systems when they start to respond. External cues and experiences often cause our autonomic nervous systems to respond. While physical environmental cues, like noise or temperature, can cause arousal, most of our arousal is associated with emotion. Fear, panic, anxiety, love, attention, stress, and excitement all elicit arousal of the sympathetic nervous system. Emotional experiences are a significant source of physiological arousal. Cognitive Components of Emotion In addition to experiencing physiological arousal during emotion, individuals will have thoughts associated with the emotion. Is this experience threatening or challenging? Is it relevant or irrelevant? Is it real or not real for me? We have many thoughts as we experience an emotion, and as you will see in the theories of emotion section, how we appraise an emotional experience greatly affects our reactions to it and our behavioral responses to it. Cognitive Control of Emotions Research on the cognitive aspect of emotion has consistently shown that how we think about an event greatly affects how we experience it physiologically and emotionally. In a classic study by Koriat and others, participants were shown films of woodshop accidents, and their emotional and physiological responses to them were measured. Participants were randomly assigned to watch different films and were also told to interact with the films differently. First, some participants were assigned to watch a film in which a man cuts the tips of his fingers, some watched a film in which a man cut off his entire finger, and others watched a film in which a man was speared through the stomach by a piece of wood that flies off a saw (Koriat et al., 1972). Additionally, half of the participants were told to involve themselves in the film, while others were told to detach themselves. They were not told how to do that and were left to engage or detach in whatever way they wanted. Researchers then measured participants’ heart rates and emotional reactions to the films. They found that participants who were asked to detach themselves from the film had much lower heart rates and reported emotional reactions. Those who were told to involve themselves experienced higher heart rate reactions and reported emotional reactions. Interestingly, when asked how they engaged or detached, most employed similar strategies in each group. The participants who were asked to engage often reported that they imagined they were the person (empathy) or thought about it happening to a friend or family member (sympathy). Participants who were told to detach from the film often reported that they pretended the events were fake or staged and chose to pay attention to technical details rather than the actual story. What is noteworthy about this study is that it is clear from the results that individuals can control their cognitive processing of an event, and doing so affects their emotional and physiological reaction to it. Cognitive appraisal and control of emotions is an important element of Lazarus’ (1974, 1999) theory of stress and coping. It also has great implications for daily stressors and learning how to think productively about events. A study of patients going into surgery revealed that those who practiced detachment strategies before surgery (not wanting to know details of their surgery, recovery, or potential complications) experienced quicker and easier recovery than patients who were more engaged in those details. Lazarus (1974, 1999) speculated that paying undue attention to these details is likely associated with anxiety and stress, which interferes with recovery. The appraisal of emotion and our cognitive control of emotions is actually something that the Apostle Paul spoke of often in his letters. In fact, in Philippians, Paul gives us concrete guidance for managing our emotions and keeping our focus positive. In Philippians 4, Paul tells us how to experience peace when he writes this: Do not be anxious about anything, but in everything by prayer and supplication with thanksgiving let your requests be made known to God. And the peace of God, which surpasses all understanding, will guard your hearts and your minds in Christ Jesus. Finally, brothers, whatever is true, whatever is honorable, whatever is just, whatever is pure, whatever is lovely, whatever is commendable, if there is any excellence, if there is anything worthy of praise, think about these things. What you have learned and received and heard and seen in me—practice these things, and the God of peace will be with you. (v. 6-9) As stated by Lazarus (1974, 1999), cognitive control of emotions is an important coping mechanism. Throughout the Bible (like this passage in Philippians), we see guidance on how to have this cognitive control. As stated by Paul and as shown in research, prayer (Ai et al., 2005; Whittington & Scher, 2010), gratitude (Emmons & Mishra, 2011), and thinking of positive things (Naseem & Khalid, 2010) can reduce negative emotions and help us cope effectively in life. Developing a habit of thinking on things that are praiseworthy, true, honorable, and excellent is supported by research that shows our typical patterns of responding can become conditioned and, in themselves, produce further emotional responses. Bower’s model proposes that when a person experiences a given emotion in a particular situation, that emotion is stored in memory, along with the ongoing events, as part of the same context. This pattern of memory representation gives rise to mood-congruent processing and mood-dependent memory (Gilligan & Bower, 2013). Mood-congruent processing occurs when people are selectively sensitized to processing and retrieval of information that agrees with their current mood state. Material congruent with one’s prevailing mood is more likely to be noticed, attended to, and processed more deeply and with greater elaborative associations. Mood-dependent memory refers to circumstances in which people find it easier to recall information when their mood at retrieval matches their mood when they first committed the information to memory. This is one of the reasons why stress and anxiety can lead to more stress and anxiety. As you begin to ruminate on the stressors in your life, it triggers memory systems related to those memories making it easier to recall similar memories. Your body responds by matching your cognitive and emotional state with behavioral and physiological responses. This creates a positive feedback loop; over time, this cycle can contribute to heightened stress and, eventually, burnout. If we apply Paul’s words, however, we can develop new cycles of praise and positive thinking rather than rumination of stress and anxiety. Understanding emotions can be surprisingly difficult, and humans are especially bad at it. Many factors can negatively impact our ability to appraise our emotional state. Knowing these factors can be really helpful in gaining better control and understanding of your emotions, as well as the emotions of the people around you. Once you consider this list, you will realize that many of the emotional responses that trigger you, such as from a loved one, friend, or colleague, are a response to their being stressed and often has little to do with you. So, once you can remove the emotional response from your own reaction to…
Purchase answer to see full attachment