1 Psy 7711 week 6 Task Student’s Name Instructor’s Name Institutional Affiliation Course Number Date 2 Psy 7711 week 6 Task Introduction Tantrums are intense emotional outbursts characterized by crying, screaming, kicking, and throwing objects. Tantrums may involve physical aggression towards oneself or others, and they typically occur in response to frustration, demands, or the inability to obtain desired objects or activities. Examples of tantrums include a child throwing themselves on the floor, screaming when denied a toy, hitting their sibling, and crying when asked to turn off the TV. Non-examples of tantrums include a child calmly expressing their displeasure or negotiating when faced with a frustrating situation. Social Significance and Justification The social significance of studying tantrums lies in their impact on the individual’s functioning and the well-being of those around them. Tantrums can disrupt daily activities, strain relationships, and impede the individual’s ability to learn and engage in social interactions. Understanding the factors contributing to tantrums and developing effective interventions can improve the individual’s quality of life, enhance their social skills, and reduce the stress experienced by caregivers and others in their environment. Procedure and Intervention The intervention used in this hypothetical study is a functional behaviour assessment (FBA) followed by implementing a behaviour intervention plan (BIP). The FBA systematically gathers information about tantrums’ antecedents, consequences, and maintaining factors through direct observation, interviews with caregivers, and review of relevant records. This information can identify the function of the tantrums (e.g., escape, attention-seeking) and develop a BIP tailored to each participant’s specific needs. 3 The BIP includes strategies such as antecedent modifications (e.g., providing clear instructions, offering choices), teaching alternative communication and coping skills, and implementing reinforcement procedures to reinforce appropriate behaviour. The intervention is implemented in naturalistic settings, such as the home or school, where tantrums occur. It involves training caregivers and teachers to implement the strategies consistently and providing ongoing support and feedback. Data Collection Data Collection Method The data collection method used in this hypothetical study is direct observation. Trained observers will directly observe and record instances of tantrum behaviour in naturalistic settings, such as the home or school. The observers will be present when tantrums are likely to occur, such as during transitions or when demands are placed on the individual. Data Recording Method The data recording method used is event recording. Each instance of a tantrum will be recorded as a separate event. The duration of each tantrum will be measured using a stopwatch, capturing the start and end times of the behaviour. The frequency of tantrums will also be recorded, indicating how many times a tantrum occurs within a specific time. The event recording method was selected because it allows for the precise measurement of tantrum behaviour, capturing both the duration and frequency of the behaviour. This method provides detailed information about the occurrence and intensity of tantrums, allowing for a comprehensive analysis of the behaviour. Instrument for Recording Data 4 The instrument used for recording the data is a behaviour observation form. This form includes fields for recording each tantrum’s date, time, duration, and frequency. It also includes a space for additional notes or contextual information relevant to understanding the behaviour. The behaviour observation form was selected because it provides a structured data recording format, ensuring consistency across observers. It allows for easy organization and analysis of the data, facilitating the identification of patterns and trends in tantrum behaviour. Schedule for Data Collection Data collection will occur during specific observation periods, determined based on the individual’s daily routine and when tantrums are most likely to occur. Observers will be present during these designated times and record each instance of tantrum behaviour. Trained observers with experience in behaviour observation and data recording will collect the data. They will be responsible for accurately recording tantrums’ occurrence, duration, and frequency during the designated observation periods. Gathering Baseline Data Baseline data will be gathered by observing and recording tantrum behaviour for a specified period before the intervention is implemented. This baseline period will provide a baseline measure of the individual’s tantrum behaviour, allowing for comparison with the intervention phase. Baseline data will be collected in the same manner as the intervention phase, using direct observation and event recording. Observers will record each instance of tantrum behaviour, including the duration and frequency, during the designated baseline period. Interobserver Agreement In this hypothetical study, interobserver agreement (IOA) is used to assess the reliability of the data collected through direct observation of tantrum behaviour. IOA provides 5 a measure of consistency between different observers in recording and identifying instances of tantrums. Method of Interobserver Agreement The method of IOA used in this study is total duration IOA. This method involves comparing the duration of tantrum behaviour recorded by two or more independent observers. It provides a measure of agreement regarding the total duration of tantrums observed. Calculation and Collection of IOA IOA is calculated by dividing the smaller duration recorded by one observer by the larger duration recorded by the other observer and multiplying by 100 to obtain a percentage. This calculation allows for determining the level of agreement between observers regarding the duration of tantrum behaviour. IOA is collected for a subset of observation sessions to ensure ongoing reliability monitoring. IOA is collected for 20% of the total observation sessions in this study. This percentage allows for a representative sample of sessions to be assessed for agreement between observers. Per cent Agreement The per cent agreement is the percentage of agreement between observers in identifying the occurrence of tantrum behaviour. It is calculated by dividing the number of agreements by the total number of agreements plus disagreements and multiplying by 100. The per cent agreement for IOA in this study is calculated for each observation session and averaged across sessions to obtain an overall measure of agreement. A high per cent agreement indicates a high level of consistency between observers in identifying tantrum behaviour. 6 Literature Support The use of IOA in behaviour analytic research is well-established and considered a standard practice for ensuring data reliability. It allows for assessing observer drift, observer bias, and overall consistency in data collection. IOA procedures and calculations have been described in various behaviour analytic literature, including studies on functional behaviour assessment and intervention evaluation (Braun & Clarke, 2006). (American Psychiatric Association. 2013). . Previous studies have used the specific method of total duration IOA to examine challenging behaviour and intervention effectiveness (Lecavalier, 2006). (Samson et al. 2015). Design ` The design of this hypothetical study is a single-case design, specifically an A-B-A design. This design involves collecting baseline data (Phase A), implementing an intervention (Phase B), and then returning to baseline conditions (Phase A) to assess the effects of the intervention. The A-B-A design is commonly used in behaviour analytic research to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions on individual behaviour. It allows for comparing behaviour during baseline conditions with behaviour during the intervention phase, providing evidence of the intervention’s impact (Braun & Clarke, 2006). In the first phase (Phase A), baseline data is collected to establish the individual’s typical behaviour before implementing the intervention. This baseline data serves as a control condition against which the effects of the intervention can be evaluated. During this phase, direct observation is used to record instances of tantrum behaviour, including the duration and frequency of each tantrum. The data recording method is event recording, where each tantrum is recorded as a separate event (American Psychiatric Association. 2013). 7 After the baseline phase, the intervention is implemented (Phase B). The specific details of the intervention should be provided in this hypothetical study. However, during this phase, the same data recording method is used to record instances of tantrum behaviour. The duration and frequency of tantrums are recorded using a behaviour observation form, allowing consistent and organized data collection (American Psychiatric Association. 2013). Once the intervention phase is completed, the study returns to the baseline conditions (Phase A) to assess the effects of the intervention. The same data recording method is used to collect data on tantrum behaviour during this phase. By comparing the behaviour during the intervention phase with the baseline phase, the researchers can determine if the intervention affected reducing tantrum behaviour. The design of this study allows for a systematic evaluation of the intervention’s effectiveness on tantrum behaviour. The researchers can determine if the intervention reduced tantrum behaviour by collecting baseline data and comparing it to the intervention phase. This design is particularly useful in single-case studies, focusing on individual behaviour rather than group comparisons (Braun & Clarke, 2006). In summary, the design of this hypothetical study is an A-B-A design, involving the collection of baseline data, implementation of an intervention, and a return to baseline conditions. The data recording method is event recording, and a behaviour observation form is used to record the duration and frequency of tantrum behaviour. This design allows for evaluating the intervention’s impact on reducing tantrum behaviour in an individual. Results The results of this hypothetical study provide insights into the factors that contribute to treatment success for behaviour challenges in school-age autistic children. The study employed a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative data from caregiver ratings and 8 qualitative data from open-ended survey responses. Quantitative results showed no significant differences in caregiver ratings of intervention satisfaction and the improvement maintained over time among different interventions. This suggests that the interventions evaluated in the study were similarly effective in addressing behavioural challenges in autistic children. These findings are consistent with previous research that has shown the effectiveness of various interventions in improving behaviour outcomes in this population (Mazefsky et al., 2014). Qualitative analysis of the open-ended survey responses revealed several key themes at different levels: systems, provider, caregiver/family, and child/intervention. At the systems level, participants emphasized the importance of access to timely and appropriate interventions and the need for coordination and collaboration among different service providers. These findings highlight the systemic barriers that can impact the delivery of effective interventions for behavioural challenges in autistic children (Anderson et al., 2007). At the provider level, participants emphasized the importance of consistent appointment attendance and establishing a strong therapeutic alliance between the clinician and the caregiver. This finding underscores the significance of caregiver engagement and collaboration in the treatment process. It suggests that interventions are more likely to be successful when there is a shared understanding between the clinician and the caregiver regarding the nature of the behaviour challenges and the strategies to address them (Al-Farsi et al., 2013). At the caregiver/family level, participants highlighted the importance of caregiver buy-in to the treatment model. This includes agreement on the understanding of why and how tantrums occur and the caregiver’s active involvement in implementing intervention strategies both within and outside the clinic. These findings emphasize the critical role of caregivers in the success of interventions for behavioural challenges in autistic children (Al-Farsi et al., 9 2013). At the child/intervention level, participants emphasized the need for individualized and targeted strategies that address specific behaviour problems. They also highlighted the importance of using tantrums as “teachable moments” to reinforce and generalize intervention strategies. These findings underscore the importance of tailoring interventions to each child’s unique needs and characteristics (Al-Farsi et al., 2013). Overall, the results of this study highlight the multifaceted nature of treatment success for behaviour challenges in school-age autistic children. They emphasize the importance of a comprehensive and collaborative approach that involves caregivers, providers, and the broader systems in which interventions are delivered. These findings have implications for developing and implementing interventions that effectively address behaviour challenges in this population. Validity Validity refers to the extent to which a study accurately measures or assesses what it intends to measure or assess. It is a crucial aspect of research as it determines the credibility and reliability of the findings. In this hypothetical study, several measures were used to assess different aspects of the intervention and its impact on behaviour challenges in autistic children. In this study, the measures used, such as caregiver ratings and open-ended survey responses, were designed to capture various aspects of the intervention and its effects. The items in the measures were carefully selected to ensure that they covered relevant domains and captured the key elements of interest. For example, the open-ended survey responses allowed participants to provide detailed and nuanced feedback on their experiences with the intervention. This demonstrates content validity as the measures align with the research objectives and adequately represent the assessed constructs (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Construct validity refers to the extent to which a measure accurately assesses the underlying theoretical construct it is intended to measure. This study assessed constructs such 10 as intervention satisfaction, improvement in behaviour challenges, and factors influencing treatment success. The items in the measures were based on established theories and previous research in the field. For example, the qualitative analysis of open-ended survey responses allowed for identifying key themes related to systems, provider, caregiver/family, and child/intervention factors. This demonstrates construct validity as the measures effectively captured the intended constructs and provided meaningful insights into the research questions (American Psychiatric Association. 2013). Criterion validity refers to how a measure correlates with an external criterion or gold standard. In this study, there is no specific mention of using an external criterion to establish criterion validity. However, the measures were based on established instruments and scales validated in previous research. For example, the Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory (ECBI) and the Coping with Children’s Negative Emotions Scale (CCNES) have been widely used to assess behaviour challenges and parental emotional style. Using these established measures enhances the credibility and validity of the findings (Lecavalier, 2006). Conclusion The hypothetical study presented a single-case design, specifically an A-B-A design, to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions on behaviour challenges in school-age autistic children. The study employed a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative caregiver ratings and qualitative open-ended survey responses to assess the impact of the interventions. The study’s results provided valuable insights into the factors influencing treatment success for behaviour challenges in autistic children. The quantitative findings indicated that the interventions evaluated were similarly effective in addressing behaviour challenges. The qualitative analysis of open-ended survey responses revealed key themes related to systems, provider, caregiver/family, and child/intervention factors. These themes highlighted the importance of access to timely and appropriate interventions, coordination and collaboration 11 among service providers, consistent appointment attendance, caregiver engagement and collaboration, individualized and targeted strategies, and using tantrums as teachable moments. 12 References Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative research in psychology, 3(2), 77-101. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Author. Lecavalier, L. 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Bombard, Y., Baker, G. R., Orlando, E., Fancott, C., Bhatia, P., Casalino, S., Onate, K., Denis, J.-L., & Pomey, M. P. (2018). Engaging patients to improve quality of care: a systematic review. Implementation Science, 13(1), 98. Mazefsky, C. A., Borue, X., Day, T. N., & Minshew, N. J. (2014). Emotion regulation patterns in adolescents with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder
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