Review: New Contexts for Understanding Human Behavior

Reviewed Work(s): Passions Within Reason: The Strategic Role of the Emotions. by Robert H. Frank Social and Personality Development: An Evolutionary Synthesis. by Kevin B. MacDonald

Roger D. Masters

The Quarterly Review of Biology, Vol. 65, No. 2. (Jun., 1990), pp. 207-209.

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JUNE 1990 N E W BIOLOGICAL BOOKS 207

ation for others, and the search for common goals so necessary for a functioning society? Most, if not all, existing ethical systems fail seriously to pass these tests. Snell then defines a “rational ethic” as one “that best serves the needs of those who espouse it. . . . an ethic in the humanist tradition, founded on rea- son and dedicated to human welfare” (p. 235). It must be compatible with the moral nature with which evo- lution has endowed us. It must assume a universal character, seeking to establish sufficient world unity to eliminate war. It should enlarge our circle of con- sideration; and it must be founded on the recogni- tion of individual differences. It should enlist the political process in order to insure adequate enforce- ment. Finally, it must fall within the scope of the possible, so that it may be accepted by enough peo- ple and with enough conviction that it will work. “To arrive at a rational ethic, the great need is consensus” (p. 238). Snell’s rational ethic would seek “the greatest total happiness, or . . . the greatest average happi- ness for each individual” (p. 239). A right act, then, is one that “in the light of the best available evidence, will make a greater contribution to human happi- ness than any available alternatives” (p. 239).

Looking at existing codes of ethical behavior, in the chapter, “The Rules We Live By:’ Snell points out the virtues and the failings of all these systems intended to regulate human behavior. Finally, in his last chapter, Looking to the Future, he opens his summation with the words:

The major thesis of this volume is that self- interest rightly understood leads us to socially responsible behavior. Moral action -action which serves the best interests of the group – follows naturally from an informed and rea- soned self-interest (p. 261).

Snell sees three requirements that must be met to permit major ethical reform: a crisis that will cre- ate a broad demand for such reform; a sufficient con- sensus, especially among the leaders of the people, that will allow concerted action to be made; and a program of education and institutional change that will provide the means. He recognizes the difficul- ties, but also emphasizes the challenge to men and women of good will. He ends with an eloquent per- oration:

If you love liberty, prefer honesty to deceit, value gentleness and kindness in your fellow man, cherish family and friends, and glory in the beauty of the world and the wonderful diversity of its creatures, then for the sake of yourself and your children and all that is good in the human spirit, join with like-thinking men and women everywhere to build, on the foun- dations of knowledge and reason, a future where goodness and love shall prevail (pp. 267-268).

NEW CONTEXTS FOR UNDERSTANDING HUMAN BEHAVIOR

ROGERD. MASTERS Department of Government, Dartmouth College,

Hanouer, New Hampshire 03755 USA

A review of PASSIONS THE STRATEGIC OFWITHIN REASON: ROLE THE EMOTIONS.

By Robert H. Frank. W W Norton, New Erk. $19.95. xv + 304 p.; ill.; index. ISBN: 0-393-02604-3. 1988.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT:AND PERSONALITY AN EVO- LUTIONARY SYNTHESIS.Perspectives in Developmental Psychology.

By Kevin B. MacDonald; Series Editor: Michael Lewis. Plenum Press, New York. $45.00. xv + 349 p.; ill.; index. ISBN: 0-306-42891-1. 1988.

The social sciences are, slowly but unmistakably, un- dergoing a basic change. In economics, social psy- chology, political science, history, and sociology, the approaches of modern biology and evolutionary the- ory were until recently either ignored or rejected as ideologically biased; for at least two generations,

those seeking a science of human behavior usually took physics as their model. Today, the life sciences are increasingly becoming a framework within which social scientists find it possible to resolve theoretical dilemmas and enrich empirical work.

The books of Robert Frank (in economics) and Kevin MacDonald (in social psychology) illustrate this transformation, which might be described as what Thomas Kuhn would call a “paradigm shift.” Each author illustrates a different way of relating biological research to social science, and these works suggest how our understanding of human behavior can be improved by this trend.

Of the two, Frank’s book is the more elegant and lucidly written. He begins from the paradox, com- mon to game theory, economics, and individual se- lection models in evolutionary biology, that self- interested actors are not predicted to engage in a

208 THE QUARTERLY REVIEW VOLUMEOF BIOLOGY 65

host of widely observed behaviors that entail net short-run costs (albeit long-term benefits). Why do some people sue a neighbor for trespass when the costs of the suit are far greater than the benefits? Why does a reasonable traveler tip the waitress in a far-away city that will never be visited again? While Robert Trivers’s model of “reciprocal altruism” (or, in Richard Alexander’s term, “mutualism”) might explain cooperation among individuals who are likely to engage in role-reversal or to be observed by bystanders, humans -and even some nonhuman animals -often cooperate even when self-interested defection will be undetected. Why?

Using the well-known Prisoner’s Dilemma to il- lustrate this often discussed problem, Frank points out that the ability to communicate one’s habitual strategy has powerful effects on the balance between competition and cooperation. Relating this prob- lem in rational-choice theory to the work of Darwin, Frank then develops a brilliant analysis of the selec- tive advantages of facial displays and other expres- sive behaviors that communicate affect. In addition to these reputational effects, moreover, such emo- tional responses as guilt make it possible to pursue long-range gains that entail immediate net costs.

By working through the benefits of emotion as a solution to the paradoxes of game theory known as “commitment strategies:’ Frank shows how the for- mal cost-benefit theories of social behavior used in both economics and evolutionary biology can il- luminate the empirical study of nonverbal commu- nication and emotion. More impressively, he moves easily from incisive theoretical analysis to experimen- tal research, confirming the predicted increases in cooperation when individuals are allowed to com- municate before playing a Prisoner’s Dilemma game. Integrating research from many disciplines, Frank then shows how the effects of emotion on self-interest explain apparent anomalies in judgments of fairness, in love, and in altruistic behavior.

For its clarity in establishing a fundamental con- nection between cost-benefit models of choice, evolu- tionary biolog): and human psychology, Frank’s Pm- sions within Reason is probably one of the most important theoretical works in the social sciences to appear in the last decade. Kevin MacDonald’s So- cial and Personality Development may be as significant, but for a rather different reason.

MacDonald has written a textbook in social psy- chology that situates much of the work in that field in the context of contemporary ethology, sociobiol- ogy, and neurophysiology. Social and Personality De- velopment surveys extensive psychological research in temperament and personality, development, sex differences, and socialization. Fully conversant with the modes ofthought long traditional in psycho1og)i MacDonald insists that such research be integrated with the relevant insights from the life sciences.

Starting from the philosophy of science, Mac- Donald challenges the belief that all scientific the- ories are subjective, culture-based conventions or ideologies. Substantively, he addresses the nature- nurture debate, gene-environment interaction, sta- bility and change throughout development, and a host of issues that have aroused controversy in mod- ern psychology. In so doing, moreover, MacDonald shows how a balanced approach based on evolution- ary theory and ethology can avoid the pitfalls ofear- lier approaches to human social behavior.

Theories of personality, for example, have long posited dimensions of temperament or character by giving subjects questionnaires and subjecting the an- swers to factor analvsis. Because different factor ro- tations can be equally valid in mathematical terms, this results in personality categories that are to some degree arbitrary (p. 70). Following the lead of Gray and Cloninger, MacDonald argues that such cir- cularitv can be avoided if ~ersonalitv dimensions are derived from the evolved properties of human so- cial behavior as well as from the structure and func- tioning of the central nervous system. The result is a three-dimensional personality theory akin to that of Cloninger, in which emotionality or “reactivity” (Cloninger’s “novelty-seeking”), risk-taking or sen- sation-seeking (Cloninger’s “harm avoidance”), and social reward (Cloninger’s “reward dependence”) are distinct but interdependent traits that vary within and between human populations. Such a view leads to specific predictions that can be confirmed by ex- perimental and observational findings.

MacDonald goes on to show that in many other areas, empirical evidence contradicts rival psycho- logical theories that are based on ad hoc assump- tions and that lack a grounding in evolutionary bi- ology. H e surveys the literature on emotion and cognition (emphasizing that causation can be bi- directional); infant attachment and social ex- perience; parent-child relations; the development of sex-linked behaviors, aggression, and peer interac- tion; and “moral” or “altruistic” development (i.e., the kinds of behavior underlying the phenomena studied by Frank).

O n each topic, MacDonald shows that an evolu- tionary perspective makes it possible to integrate competing theories while developing and testing em- pirical hypotheses. Not only is traditional learning theory inadequate to explain many psychological processes observed during individual development, but without an evolutionary perspective it is hard to explain cultural variation in parenting and social behavior. Moreover, as his last chapter illustrates, consideration of contextual and ecolocical factors ” makes it possible to address such questions as the role of socialization in contemporary industrial so- cieties, as well as in Stalinist Russia, Nazi Germany, and ancient Sparta.

209 JUNE 1990 NEW BIOLOGICAL BOOKS

As with any ambitious textbook, one can easily find flaws. MacDonald is not as lucid a writer as Frank (though perhaps this is inevitable, given the type of book he has written). While recent work in cognitive neuroscience is by no means absent, it receives less emphasis than the explosion of fasci- nating research on neuroanatomy and neurochem- istry might justify (but then, if MacDonald had followed this route, would traditional social psychol- ogists be more hostile to his work?). Just as Frank’s Passions within Reason may be limited by the degree to which formal models can encompass the richness and variety of human social behavior, MacDonald’s

Social and Personality Development has the inevitable defects of trying to cover empirical research focused on precisely this richness and diversity.

One conclusion transcends the merits or poten- tial defects in either book. Frank and MacDonald, together with an increasing number of social scien- tists, have bridged the gulf between their own dis- ciplines and evolutionary biology, enhancing our un- derstanding of human nature and culture. This should be a welcome development to biologists who -after decades of miscomprehension- can now find some colleagues in other disciplines who speak the same scientific language.

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What is your definition of wellness, health and illness
Remembering the four concepts that guide the development of a nursing
philosophy, describe your nursing philosophy. Make sure the following
addressed in your written presentation:
a. What are characteristics of a nurse in your philosophy?
b. What is nursing (how do you define nursing)and how do you see nursing care being delivered?
c. What is your definition of wellness, health and illness?
d. Who constitute a client in nursing? In other words define client as it relates to your philosophy.
e. Discuss your philosophy from a global, cultural and local aspect. This should be an integrated discussion as you define and discuss item a, b, c and d.
f. How has your educational journey at college impacted on the development of this nursing philosophy?

it is time to complete the Porter’s Five Forces analysis. You will continue your research to address the elements of the Five Forces model. Remember, every team member will research the nutraceuticals and supplements industry to assess the external environment of the business. Then, you will complete a Five Forces analysis using the Five Forces Template. Make sure to thoroughly research and record the reasoning for the Five Forces elements and record the references for the source material.
Biotech Health and Life Products

Company Profile

Welcome to Biotech!

The assessment projects for this class will examine different facets of the leadership of

Biotech Health and Life Products, Inc. You will be exploring leadership within Biotech

with the driving question of “what skills does a Biotech leader need to lead the company

now and in the future?”

History

Wilford Barney was a young apprentice working for Peter Ulan, owner of a small apothecary shop in Yonkers, New York. During his apprenticeship, Barney created a general energy elixir that was based on a home remedy of his mother’s back in Ireland. The elixir was produced specifically for many of Ulan’s special customers. Made of all natural ingredients the elixir provided B12 and other vitamins to promote a healthy immune system. The energy boost was noticeable after only a week’s use. The reputation of the elixir grew. In 1922, Barney took over Ulan’s apothecary shop renaming the business, Barney’s Apothecary. At that time, Barney decided to bottle his elixir and sell the formula to everyone rather than selected customers. Barney also gave bottles of the elixir to local peddlers who sold the product along with their wares receiving a commission on each bottle they sold. By 1929, the product was well known in Yonkers. Encouraged by the success in Yonkers Barney decided to branch out to New York City. In 1932, Barney built a small manufacturing plant near the store where he mixed and bottled the elixir for sale. By 1934, Barney expanded sales by putting the elixir in a quarter of the apothecary shops in New York City. Sales were booming and customers inquired about other products that Barney’s had. In 1936, Barney started a new product called Night Relief, another of his mother’s recipes. This product offered relief from night sweats and anxiety caused by menopausal symptoms or nerves. When this product proved a “secret success” with the ladies, Barney decided to bring his mother, Irene, from Ireland, and put her to work making new natural products. With his mother’s help, Barney grew the business into a small but successful manufacturer of natural “life products”. Barney coined “life products” because the products tracked natural life events in the human body and attempted to improve the customer’s discomfort in dealing with them. The name of the company was changed to Barney’s Elixir and Life Products. The business continued to grow and with his mother’s death in 1938 the company had a gross revenue of $178,000 a year. The depression took a toll on company profits but people

still needed the boosts to their health and were able to afford Barney’s products as opposed to the medicine offered by doctors and hospitals. During World War II the company supplied the troops with a natural caffeine (Stay Clear) product that would keep soldiers awake for long periods of time and heighten their mental alertness. Government contracts derived from Stay Clear boosted the revenue of the company considerably and ushered in a new wave of interest of natural products. By 1950 Barney turned over the reins of the daily operations of the business to his children but remained on the Board of his family owned company. By this time, the company had expanded its manufacturing plants and sales nationally to include Detroit, Michigan, Los Lunas, New Mexico, Chicago, Illinois and Atlanta, Georgia. The revenue of the company was now close to 2.5 million dollars. In the 1960’s the social climate in America had changed and pharmaceutical companies took on greater importance in the treatment of people’s health. The discovery of new drugs and better health care shifted the confidence in the American perspective away from natural products to traditional western medicine. Although the counter culture of America still supported natural supplements, popularity for Barney’s products waned. In 1965, Wilford’s granddaughter, Geraldine, took over the Research and Development Department (R&D) after receiving a degree in chemistry from Harvard. She had been trained as a child by her grandmother, Wilford’s mother, and knew how the recipes should look. However, she had new ideas and with the approach of the 1970’s, was ready to join the “Anjolie perfume commercial” lifestyle depiction of a 70’s women that “they could bring home the bacon and fry it up too.” Due to the downturn in sales by 1970, the company turned to other countries for its sales base. Starting in Germany and other European countries where natural products are highly credible, Barney began to license the sale of the company’s products to local manufacturers. The name recognition grew and by the 1980’s the company was grossing over 4 million dollars in gross sales. The company moved to overseas operations and manufactured in Germany. Wilford Barney died in 1981 shortly after seeing his first grandchild, Maximillian Barney, take over the President’s positon of the company. Studying the trends in the 1990’s about the resurgence of natural health products “Max” as he liked to be called, decided it was time for Barney’s to focus on the new interest in homeopathic and natural products especially at home in America where sales were static. In 1996, Max, wanting to get a sleeker and more modern feel to the company’s products changed the company name and logo. No longer was Barney’s a mom and pop operation but now were part of the Biotech nutraceutical market. Barney’s Elixir and Life Products was now Biotech Health and Life Products. While the products would continue to show the old Barney logo, for name recognition the new logo would take prominence on the packaging. By 2000 the company was grossing about 1.1 billion in sales with an increase in market share. By 2012, Biotech had a 20% market share of the supplement business with

approximately $20 billion in sales. The growing interest in the bio-nutraceutical marketplace was catching the attention of the big pharmaceutical companies. Glaxo, Merke and Dupont began a massive shift to the new biotech business products. Currently sales for the company are at $35 billion. Maximillian Barney is still President and CEO. The stock is still held by the family and all senior management positions are held by family members. Current Company Vision: To help provide everyone with the healthiest life possible in the most natural of ways. Current Mission: To develop products that are safe, effective, affordable and natural with the customer’s health always their primary goal.

Current Fact Sheet

Headquarters Yonkers, New York Worldwide web address www.biotechlife.com President Maximillian Barney 2016 Gross Sales US$ 35 billion Employees 35,000 in 6 countries worldwide Manufacturer Operations United States Detroit, Michigan, Los Lunas, New Mexico, Chicago,

Illinois and Atlanta, Georgia

Europe Wittllch, Germany, Baltimore, Ireland Asia Pacific Melbourne, Australia Latin America and Caribbean Sao Paulo, Brazil Canada Product Lines Major Competitors

Alberta, Canada Protein and Fitness; Personal Care, Nutraceuticals, Vitamins and Food Supplements Protein and Fitness-GNC,

Personal Care- Nestle Skin Care- Galderma, SA; Glaxo, Merke, General Mills.

Vitamins and Food Supplements- GNC, Natures Plus, Natrol, Nature’s Way, Nature’s Bounty, Hain Celestial Group, Inc, Schiff Nutrition International, Nestle, General Mills, Now Foods and New Chapter

Current Business Philosophy

Biotech has determined its long-term goal planning pattern should be no longer than 3 years. Three years seems more flexible than the seven year planning pattern previously used as change in the business climate is making it imperative to be more flexible. The need for innovation and competitive advantage ideas are the main focus for the next two years along with the company’s commitment to becoming a triple bottom line company. Sustainability both for profit and planet is foremost in the minds of the leadership. The development of a triple bottom line company is in the best interest of the company because of the need to keep a strong natural product image link to the community and the desire for the company to be socially responsible. Protection of the suppliers and control over product quality is critical to the development of a sound “life product.”

Current Growth Plans Business and Sales Biotech is looking to expand to Saudi Arabia in the next year. Currently products sold through European division but demand is great in the Arab countries. Although the company would like to sell in Israel as well, Arab countries are seen as a more lucrative expansion opportunity. Expansion of the production capacity in Sao Paulo is being considered as company can no longer keep up with sales projections. Product Development Biotech is looking to develop its cosmetic and food lines. The company currently has lip balms but seeks to make a line of lipsticks, foundation, powder, eye makeup and cleaners made from natural ingredients. Development of natural flavorings and whey products are under consideration.

Current Eco Sustainability Commitments Currently, Biotech has commitments to build housing for several communities in Brazil and India where natural pharmaceutical ingredients are produced. The program reflects the company’s strong commitment to making the company a triple bottom line company by the year 2021.

Innovation and Adaptability Development of organizational structure and culture changes are being made to introduce more collaborative decision making as well as bringing the divisions closer together in the area of shared resources and communication. The emphasis is to encourage the exchange of ideas, create an environment that fosters new ideas and makes change easier in their implementation. Biotech is concerned that the stateside organization is driving the other overseas divisions and that new ideas are being encouraged because of the cultural differences in staff. Customer innovation workshops run by the various divisions have highlighted that R&D in Europe and Australia see differences in customer preferences from US customer preferences. It is believed that US controlled resources

are ignoring these product preferences and are thus impeding sales overseas. Corporate leaders are trying to examine how to answer this cultural gap.

Current Corporate Culture Being a family owned business, Barney’s new image has made the family a little less cohesive since it seeks to be a sleeker less clan like organization. Still the family leaders are committed to keeping the family history as a symbol for the company. It is believed that the family cultural connection gives support to collaborative decision making something company has been successful in promoting throughout the organization. It is also seen by the owners that their family his helping the family that makes up their customers. The family wants to encourage a customer centric culture, one which allows employees to see everything through the perspective of the customer and to make decisions with the customer’s view always paramount. Further, there would be a companywide accountability to the customer in all departments. The want a workforce that gives an extraordinary customer experience in every product it makes.

Current Organizational Structure This company has a geographical division structure. However, within each division is a functional structure with production and sales at the hub. R&D, HR, IT and Finance have small staff in each division whose primary job is to liaison with headquarters to implement the decisions made by them. Above all the Divisions is the President and CEO Maximillian Barney Housed in headquarters is the R&D, HR, IT, and Finance Divisions

Executive Director South America

Division

Executive Director North American

Division

Executive Director European Division

Executive Directive Asia Division

Giles Hartford